The Golden Eagle

                                                     Wild Nahani

The Golden Eagle

Biology, ethology and conservation

 

"Oh you, golden eagle you live in the near sky in Ukan-Tanka, how strong are your wings!

You are the One who takes care of the sacred becoming

of our tribe and all that makes it live. May all peoples be happy and enlightened! "

Sioux song

To the free continuity of the wild world and in loving memory of my wife Elzbieta Mielczarek

Elzbieta Mielczarek (1963 - 2014)

This book of mine is dedicated to you, dear Elzbieta, for all the hours / days / years we spent together in the mountains to observe the Golden eagles.

Thank you,

I will always remember you and I will always love you!

Forever Young!

Author's note

This book is intended to be a compendium of the observations and research that I have done directly on the field during the turn of over twenty years. The reader will find the description of the natural history of the Golden Eagle , presenting the biological and ethological aspects of the raptor as well as the protectionist issues on the species. For strictly protectionist reasons the whole text never refers to the specific locations of the eagles except occasionally in a totally general form.

Another aim of the work is to direct the reader's attention to environmental problems, since it is not possible to deal with the biology of wildlife species, as is the real Golden Eagle, without taking into account the intimate relationship between alteration and / or destruction of a specific environment and extinction of the fauna that lives in that environment. In fact, the threat that currently weighs on the life of many animal species, including eagles with other birds of prey, the wolf, brown bear, lynx, otter, etc. it does not derive only from direct killings, already in itself full of serious consequences, but also derives from the progressive degradation of the territory in which those species live.

With this paper we hope to be able to contribute to the knowledge of the natural history of the Golden Eagle and its preservation in addition to that of the environment as a whole. Of course, this modest work can only fulfill that marginal commitment, but one could nevertheless be proud if it had only contributed to the definition of the true identity of a bird of prey which, in the noble appearance of the same solemnity of the mountains, appears as the 'emblem of the wonderful and delicate random balance that holds the ecosystem. In truth, in these pages, the Golden Eagle is not observed as a passive object, but becomes itself a subject, and takes on the role of protagonist of a fascinating story.

The places of the study were numerous, above all for a useful comparison of the various couples settled in completely different territories from each other, and have had their fulcrum in the European context (Scandinavia, Scotland, French Alps, Swiss, Spanish Pyrenees , Polish Carpathians) although the prevalence of the Italian one (Central Apennines and some Alpine districts) is clear, where, among other things, I have carried out my work as a naturalist with the State Forestry Corps. Finally, it must be remembered that this work does not claim to represent a complete study of the life of the Golden Eagle, but simply a stage in the difficult journey towards the knowledge of natural phenomena.

Wild Nahani

Introduction

Beyond its great naturalistic importance, the Golden Eagle is universally considered a symbol of strength and domination, so much so that many countries have appropriated its image to represent it on flags or on coats of arms. Honored by the poets, the undisputed sovereign of the highest peaks, so as to deserve the appellation of "queen of the mountains" , the Eagle is in the messenger mythology of Zeus, and moreover guardian of his lightning (the North American Indians called it "l 'bird of thunder'). The Jowa ended their war dances with the "dance of the Eagle", symbolizing movements and verses in imitation of the divine bird (Baumgartner, 1988) while the Pueblo of the south-western United States maintained the Golden Eagle, the eagle of the war, to collect its feathers during the pack (Burnham, 1991). The same Indian amulets presented aquiline symbols and the eagle feathers decorated headdresses and diadems. When the alliance to Moses was presented, the Eagle represented the protection and strength of God. Shakespeare himself in his writings often refers to the quotation of raptors in general and L'Aquila in particular. Even the advertising images are largely appropriate to the figure of L'Aquila. The examples could continue for a long time. W. Fischer writes, referring to the Eagles held by falconers (in Baumgartner, 1988) "L'Aquila is an animal with a strong personality that is located on a very close relationship plan, almost of equality with the owner. is able to record negative experiences turning them into lasting impressions. " He recognizes his master even after years of separation and forgets rudeness and good deeds (Baumgartner, 1988). L'Aquila's fascination with its gliding flight, which seems to escape the laws of universal gravitation, with the rapidity of its attack that catches its prey with the speed of lightning, has always stimulated the popular imagination with the strangest beliefs, including one that concerns its inaccessible and mysterious nest (Pedrini, 1987) or the one that, in times not too far away, told of an Eagle with powerful claws that kidnaped babies from cradles. But neither the innate pride of the bird of prey nor the halo of legend that surrounds it has been able to preserve it from a centuries-old, systematic persecution that has threatened its very existence. If you think that the Eagle (like many other predators) was not too far in time still listed among the "harmful" species to be destroyed by any means (traps, shotguns, poisoned bites, destruction of nests, egg collection, etc .. ), we realize the great risk of extinction that the species has run. Fortunately, in recent decades, thanks to the pressure exerted by the scientific world and protectionist associations, many countries have taken measures to protect them, which has obviously been extended to other birds of prey. However, serious dangers persist for the survival of the Golden Eagle, deriving not only from the killing of poaching, but also from the tampering with the mountain territory made more and more accessible (read tourism); in this way large parts of the territory have definitively lost tranquility and peace, essential requisites for nesting and for hunting by the raptor as well as for the rest of the wildlife; such a reality will only undermine the free existence of the golden eagle and will jeopardize the last vestiges of its habitat. Paolo Pedrini (1987) writes in this regard: "... It is a fact that must be considered in the policy of management and use of mountain environments, if we do not want to frustrate in the future how much the Golden Eagle managed to rebuild, by itself , repairing the damage caused by centuries of persecution ".

It is therefore essential for the protection of animal or plant species, and in our case of the

Golden Eagle, to actively protect the environments as a whole. But can the natural world have a future? The answer seems to be negative, because man is now a prisoner of a model of development that leads to irreparable environmental imbalances and is, moreover, the protagonist of a frightening demographic explosion that has made him overcome the maximum limit of the number individuals-environmental burden. To this we

add that a large part of the population of the planet leads a standard of living that involves the use of a huge amount of energy as well as the consumption of precious metals that are starting to a progressive impoverishment.

The environmental degradation has reached such a high level and the problems are so complex that hypothesizing their solution within a single country means consuming itself in an unrealistic effort, since the degradation is, so to speak, ecumenical and not s really stops before customs barriers. In fact it is necessary to observe that the degradation is not uniformly distributed on the planet, as it presents a distribution that we could define as "leopard spot"; it would be a fallacious hope, however, to try to reconstitute the general ecological balance by means of measures that treat the "spots" on a case-by-case basis, since it is necessary that the negative influence exerted by human activities on environmental equilibrium is drastically reduced everywhere.

It is then necessary to clear away the field of naturalistic studies from a preliminary ruling that is of such importance that it assumes the value of a contradiction in terms, since this is precisely the claim of those who insist on considering the environmental problem exclusively as a function of man. Man is a part, a piece of the ecosystem, is not the navel of nature, so it falls into a grave error who subordinates the protection of the environment to the primacy of man. For example, if someone says, "if the destruction of the forests continues, the damage will affect the man" ... "if we continue to poison the fields, the man will also be poisoned". In short, there is the risk that our inveterate anthropocentrism always re-enters in our discourses, always and for man. It is necessary to overturn such a concept to place the global interests of life on Earth at the center (holistic vision). The rule must tend to save an age-old forest not for man, but for the forest itself; in the end, even the man will take advantage of it, but it will be a reflection, not the purpose of that rescue. The wilderness must be preserved for its value in itself! Franco Zunino writes in this regard: ".  Man must respect nature for its value in itself, and must know how to pull back

as soon as its presence affects you negatively, not find quibbles and temporary remedies to justify the necessity or, worse, the 'right' of his presence ".

Our destructive actions are manifold and almost never fully understand the implications connected to the interventions that disturb the natural balance: if for example the killing of a Golden Eagle by a poacher constitutes a dramatic wound to the environment, a disturbance even greater is inherent in those acts which, in modifying the environment in itself, determine, with time, the disappearance of all the Eagles in the territory examined. These considerations on the Golden Eagle lead us to reflect again on the interconnection of environmental problems. In nature there are no vital phenomena which exhaust in themselves the reason for being; all the phenomena are chained together, a bit like the single musical scans of a symphony. Having kept this principle in mind, it is quite intuitive that in such a natural concert the territorial structure exerts an impact that overpowers the other factors, to the likeness of what happens with the "leitmotif" of a musical text.

In nature each species plays its part in a dialectical process that tends to achieve a state of equilibrium; this is obviously not perennial, and has in itself the ability to settle on the parameters that will gradually be defined. It should be noted that every single biological specificity, when it enters the evolutionary process that will determine the equilibrium point of the ecosystem, assumes its own well-defined role. In theory, man should also participate in the evolutionary process with equal rights with other species, both animal and vegetable, but this does not actually happen because man, due to his intellectual development is, among other things, able to modify and change the structure of the territory through gigantic works, such as - for example - dams that block rivers, thousands of kilometers of highways, the drying up of lakes, the construction of cities; to this it is added that, thanks to its sophisticated technology, man has the possibility of exterminating, in a short period of time, any other living form.  Man has therefore emerged from the

harmonious relationship with natural resources and, independently, has increased his population and his needs to the total detriment of nature.

From these considerations it is clear that, given the extreme gravity of the environmental degradation, it is necessary to intervene radically, without compromise, placing the protection of the environment in a pre-eminent position with respect to any other interest; this can only be achieved by activating a different current of thought that has at its base a will opposed to the current one: that of conserving. But only if we acquire this new form of mentality in our conscience, can we really protect nature and then, ultimately, ourselves, otherwise no law or compulsory coercion can guarantee a true and real protection of the environment. Until we consider, for example, a forest or any other natural resource as something "united" to us and to the whole, no result or protection of a territory will have value and above all concreteness.

It is sad to have to admit it, but the impact that man exerts on the territory is in dramatic contrast with the needs of the natural economy (which always dominates the human economy). It would be desirable to achieve a substantial reduction in population pressure, but such an auspice is unfortunately colored by mad utopia. To drastically reduce the demographic pressure: a great act of altruism towards nature (but also towards ourselves), this is the precept that each of us should learn by heart, but we know well that the invocation has little chance of being heard. It is useless to discuss the reduction of consumption, the reversal of trends or the control of pollution: these are just words that go away with the wind. Reality is a raw "aut-aut", or man or nature is reduced. He is the man who must adapt to the needs of nature and not vice versa. Nature must be saved and respected for its value in itself, not for our interest, material, spiritual or ethical.

As long as humanity perseveres in the current pattern of development, wild animals will

see their living space reduced day after day to make room for the "lord man" king of creation. "Like the winds and the sunsets, wild life was considered safe until the so-called progress began to take it away. Now we are faced with the problem of whether an even higher level of life is worth its frightening cost in all that is natural, free and wild " (A. Leopold).

Only the total disappearance of anthropocentrism will save life on planet earth! Any other compromise will be doomed to fail. And yet "There is only hope to reject the tyrannical ambition of civilization to conquer every place on earth. This hope is the organization of the people most sensitive to the values of the spirit, so that they fight for the free continuity of the wild nature " ( Robert Marshall).

Man is therefore responsible for providing for the protection of nature (because he is the man who destroys it and therefore it is he who must preserve it), unless one wishes to consider man as a mere component of dialectical materialism , which would have been entrusted with the task of subverting the natural environment handed down to us by the biblical "creation": only this could be ironically the essence of anthropocentric philosophy. John Muir rightly asserted that "civilization" can not ignore the wilderness, the wild and uncorrupted nature.

To comment on these observations we would like to underline, concluding with the Golden Eagle, that behind the proud pride and the admired energy of the bird of prey there is in reality a nature of unsuspected fragility, fragility that on the other hand is found in the whole ecosystem , all focused on a casual balance extremely sensitive to all that disturbs "the love that moves the sun and the other stars".

Before starting

To accomplish the complete writing of the book, I had to face the hardest task: to gather the voluminous field notes related to the life of the Golden Eagle noted over many years. It was not an easy task because, in addition to having to assemble in a harmonious and optimized form the wide range of research (a real puzzle), I also had to develop in chronological and consequential form all the annotated events that, in the notes, were present in a disjunct and extemporaneous form and in addition I had to consult a lot of existing bibliography on the subject for the necessary additions and for important confirmations. But, even if I had to work for over two years as a "little table" for this job, I never felt a sense of unease or annoyance because, while scrolling through the pages or reading the notes, my mind ran at the same time all those beautiful moments that I have lived in various places to observe the eagles. It also reminded me of the wonderful feeling of being in constant contact with the wild world, not only referring to eagles, but also, more generally, with the beautiful and often solitary places in which I moved to obtain the data of this study. I also thought that basically it was not a real study, because this definition is appropriate when we are dedicated exclusively to research related to human life (history, philosophy, etc.), but with more precision to a discovery or better rediscovery of the natural world that is not at all separated from us, as millennia of human culture have made it understand, but it is an existential unicum, inseparable from living. I understood how anthropocentric dualism, that is, nature on the one hand and man with his works and his life on another, is deeply erroneous, not only from the conceptual point of view, but above all from the real point of view, because the splitting of the two worlds has been the cause of the decline of the human race and with it that of the wild world, because it is dragged by the foolish work of man towards degradation and downsizing. The irreconcilable contrasts in the western thought between economy and nature or between culture and nature, are real mined bases because, when the fuse is lit, everything comes away.

This modest work of mine, seen in a unifying way, has therefore contributed, since I began the observations, to make me mature and above all to make me reconnect with the unicum of existence. In other words, the wilderness of places and spirit.

And, with these reflections that gradually came back to me while I was working on the writing of the text, my being was able to go beyond those phenomena of closure and unilateral vision of nature to arrive instead in holism, which always observes the general . In fact, in another of my works I said: ...... - A new environmental ethic is not recognized with the dogmas and the specialized scientific rigidities, but above all with a maturation of the spirit, of the sensations and therefore of the thought. Hargrove (1990) answers to the question of Darwin on the loss, by the evolutionist, of aesthetic tastes towards nature, affirming that this loss "is a natural consequence of his attempts to be scientific, to deal with facts alone". The development of scientific specialization has led to a sort of "specialist deafness" (Boulding in Pignatti 1994), ie the inability to perceive the general characteristics of a system due to the obsessive concentration of attention to details (Pignatti, 1994). The holistic notion of landscape (nature) tends to overcome this particular "deafness" by seeking a global representation of the system (Pignatti, 1994). In fact Kuhn (1978) reminds us that "normal science is a strenuous and determined attempt to force nature into the conceptual boxes provided by vocational education" .. -

Obviously, as mentioned, the present work can not ignore technical peculiarities inherent in the life of the eagles, but they are particularisms that I have always seen them in a general context.

Before developing analytically the various phases of the golden eagle biology and ethology, I inserted a first chapter in which I briefly summarize the "plot" of the documentary of the raptor's life, so, afterwards, even knowing the salient features of

history, " "whole" screening of the "film" will reveal and deepen all the events of this natural event.

The text, written in a direct form, is not academically interrupted by tabbels or diagrams, so that the story can follow a continuous and substantially linear conducting thread.

Good vision.

          The  plot of the "documentary"

The Golden Eagle colonises mostly the mountain environments with rocky walls that are not easily accessible for nesting and open environments where hunting can be carried out. In the flat areas (North Europe, Asia, etc.), or in any case without rocky walls, the Aquila builds its nest on large trees and hunts in the surrounding clearings. However, nests on trees are also found in areas where there are rocky walls; the latter case, however, is almost a rarity.

It is extremely important to ensure the tranquility of the territories occupied by a pair of Golden Eagle, because if the direct and indirect anthropic disturbance exceeds a critical threshold, the Eagle is forced to leave the area. In addition, if the impoverishment of the predabile fauna becomes particularly acute, the nesting can be suspended or put in serious danger.

In the past years, a large number of territories has seen the number of permanently settled couples reduced, both due to a strong impoverishment of prey and to direct persecution of which the species has been subject to the same number of other birds of prey. Now, thanks to an almost general protection granted by most of the States, the Eagles are recovering the lost ground even if certain localities, for a series of reasons (scarcity of prey, disturbance, permanent tampering with the territory, etc.), do not register yet a complete recovery of the staff.

It should be noted that the Golden Eagle, like other great birds of prey, is very sensitive to the direct disturbance, especially during the nesting; the slowness of population growth is counterbalanced in nature by the longevity of adult individuals, obviously not considering man's destructive interventions.

My field observations took place in many European territories, but mainly in Italian ones (especially in the Apennine area and in a minor form in the Alpine area).

Each couple has its own territory whose extension can vary from a few tens of km 2 to several hundreds. This in close relation with the characteristics of the places, the availability of the prey, the orography, the anthropic disturbance, etc.

The altitudinal bands of presence vary according to the season. In fact, during the winter season, especially if there is a load of snow at high altitude, the altitudes also lower substantially. Outside the reproductive period the Aquila, while maintaining their basic presence in the heart of their range, the area of the nests, have more freedom of movement and it is not rare to observe them even at a considerable distance from where they usually show themselves. The possession of the nests is reiterated since the autumn- winter, so that with regularity you can observe them while practicing accurate works of rearrangement of the nests by the contribution of dry or green branches. There is a clear preference for nests protected from the weather, although I have recorded several cases where the nests were far from protected. The main hunting site is preferably placed above the nests, this for obvious reasons of facilitating the carryover of the prey to the nest. In the Scottish highlands in some circumstances I did not detect this feature, which is practically absent in the flat areas of the Scandinavian, Siberian or Canadian taiga (just to give some geographical examples).

In the rocky places the morphology of the nesting territory is often articulated and

spectacular, even though there are no nests located in less showy environments on small rock faces. Generally, the upper part of the wall is the part involved in the placement of the nest and this is to ensure maximum inaccessibility to the site. With regard to orientation it is difficult to give particular importance.  Normally the pairs have on average 2-4 nests,

used in rotation with often the preference for one or two of them. A couple in particular, despite having 4 nests available, all in excellent condition, almost always chose one. One of the couples often followed by me has as many as 10 nests even if only 3-4 are those who prefer over the years so that some are practically abandoned. On one occasion I found a nest only mentioned in the construction and no longer completed nor used. Within its vital territory the Eagles have not only hunting grounds and nesting sites, but also many preferential resting places for rest, feeding or to hunt for stalking. Obviously in addition to these habitual perches there are also plenty of occasional and impromptu.

The couplings between the Eagles almost always take place near the breeding site and do

not have particular characteristics. Great showmanship, however, ensure the bridal parades visible during almost the entire year but more frequent in the period between the end of autumn and the beginning of spring. They are divided into vaulting, aerial acrobatics, gliding in pairs, beaten by the male on the female and conjunct in flight with the claws; then suddenly one of the two drops, immediately followed by the partner; Frequent wavy flights and the classic "festooned flights" that consist of lightning up a candle, followed by beaten with closed or semi-enclosed wings. The festooned flight is carried out by the Eagles also to reaffirm the territorial possession against intruders. Sometimes I noticed the participation of the young person of the previous year, without the adults having ever shown annoyance for such participation.

In the period prior to the deposition, the eagle, especially the female, continuously supplies new material to the nest (dry twigs, branches, green leaves) without bothering to camouflage. On the other hand, when the brooding begins, it can be noticed how often the Eagle in going out, but above all in entering, performs particular evolutions in order to make less visible its relationship with the nest (often it borders the rocks to camouflage its own figure). It has been observed that the more the nesting goes on the more the phase of entry to the nest is enriched with caution, cautions that reach the maximum when the chicken is already in the nest. In any case, the final entrance to the nest is almost always from the bottom up.

The contribution of green material to the nest, also carried out in the breeding phase, certainly has the purpose of refreshing the nest, softening the litter, and protecting any food remains from the sun, but has also the purpose of reaffirming the territorial domain both towards conspecifics and towards potential predators. For the same reason it may happen that the contribution of green material is also made in favor of other nests available, despite that for that year they have not been selected for breeding. This I noticed in all the couples held under my continuous observation. Even if the Eagles a year decide not to reproduce they also bring woody material to the nests both before and during the breeding season (usually, however, to a lesser extent). The Golden Eagle often sails at great heights by taking advantage of the ascensional thermal currents or by gliding in a straight line from one side of the valley to the other. The stationary flight is extremely rare and quite occasional.

The members of the couple are distinguished by their size; in fact, the female weighs a couple of kilos more than the male and has a wingspan of at least 20-30 cm. This difference is not very evident to the observer, unless the Eagles do not fly in pairs and on the same level. Coloring and size differences are also highlighted among the various subspecies.

The coloration of individuals varies with age. In fact, in the young and subadult eagles the plumage is dark brown, almost black, with large white spots above and below the wings (remiges) and on most of the tail

(helmsman), at the end of which a dark band is clearly visible. This coloring changes gradually over time until, towards the fourth or fifth year, the Eagle has a brownish coloration, which is lighter overall with golden reflections in several points of the body, particularly in the head. The white colors of the tail and wings disappear completely in adulthood; however, it should be noted that some adults may retain traces of the white plumage of the helmsmen and the primaries, so much so that the observers (mismatch between the color of the plumage and actual age) are misled. At times there are also anomalies of the plumage from the young age (partial or total lack of white patches, very small extension of the same, etc.). The adult age of 4-5 years, which we have just referred to, also represents the age of sexual maturity; in the juvenile age or in that of immature-subadult the Aquila can not reproduce and if it does the nesting will not go in port. The plumage pack generally lasts from April to September. On one occasion I observed a young man of the year without the clear side of the helmsman, while in another circumstance a young man from another couple was devoid of the wing stains.

The hunting phases are spectacular and articulate even if assisting to the final "catch" of the prey is anything but a common event. On the contrary, it is easier to observe the general phases of hunting: the eagles fly over the territory at low altitudes near the ground, skirting the valley sides, the ridges, the grasslands of altitude letting themselves be guided by the undulations of the ground; in this way the bird of prey can surprise the prey that is almost always caught on the ground, even if it is not rare to observe the Eagle while catching some birds in flight. In the latter case it can perform turns and sudden changes in direction that leave you astonished by the agility shown by the bird of prey despite its size. In addition to this type of hunting, the Golden Eagle uses to capture its prey even with the technique of the nesting. In this last case, the raptor, placed on a rock, tries to identify the possible movements of some animal on the ground or in the air. When this occurs, the Eagle suddenly starts by using powerful flywheels if necessary.

After long observations in the field I have had the opportunity to record in some pairs a slight gap between the success rate achieved by the stalking hunt and the one obtained by raiding hunt, but the data collected are however insufficient for any "hunting" evaluation of the 'topic. But now we are going to develop some considerations on the two hunting techniques.

As we have just seen, the bird of prey in the stalking hunt remains motionless on a dominant roost, carefully scrutinizing the surrounding areas. If he identifies a probable prey, he swoops down with closed or half-closed wings according to the speed he wants to reach (his powerful sight allows him to see a hare even a mile away!). When it is about to seize the prey, it leans forward its claws with its powerful claws and spreads its wings to stop the race. This is the decisive moment: if he succeeds in capturing the prey, this has no chance of escape; but if the prey, aware of the arrival of L'Aquila, succeeds in evading the trap, the useless bird of prey can hope for a second attempt. In fact, when the Eagle is on the ground is extremely awkward and awkward, and takes a considerable time to resume the flight in an attempt to capture the prey on the run. Sometimes, however, especially if the victim is a hare, the second attempt is successful. When it comes to a fox, I could see that if the first attempt fails, it is extremely difficult for Aquila to capture the cunning mammal in the second measure. In fact the behavior of the hare and that of the fox diverge in a relevant way (this only in reference to particular

non-generalizable observations): when the hare undergoes the attack of the Eagle flees immediately at great speed, sometimes allowing the raptor to resume flight to ghermirla a little further. The fox, on the contrary - especially if it is in open territory that does not offer a safe shelter nearby - once it has undergone L'Aquila's hunting attempt, it hardly ever flees to the first attempt of predation but controls the situation at close distance (1-2 meters), waiting for the further moves of L'Aquila; sometimes the fox, often with its tail up, merely makes a few turns around the bird of prey to disorient it. Once the now resigned Eagle resumed the flight a bit 'hard, the fox trotting and always keeping under control the situation, moving away with relative tranquility to gain the first safe haven. On one occasion I happened to see a fox flee immediately to the eagle hunting attempt to get inside a grove only about ten meters away. This happened because the natural shelter was a very short distance away.

With rake hunting the technique changes radically as, as we have seen before, the bird of prey must perform an active search by flying over a vast territory, staying at low altitude to scrutinize all the folds of the ground. With this technique Aquila tries to catch the prey that, when it is discovered, escapes in order not to be seized (sometimes the capture takes place without the prey being able to escape). Often this type of hunting is performed simultaneously by both individuals of the couple (hunting in tandem): one of the birds of prey shows off to distract the prey and push it into the open; the other bird of prey collects the fruits of deception, suddenly plunging into a grim flight over the unfortunate victim. Tandem hunting fascinates by the perspicacity that distinguishes it, meaning an important evolutionary goal achieved by the species.

The direct observations of the couples followed confirmed the statistical data on the success of the predation by the Eagles, in the sense that it, as in the other predators, is rather low, since it does not go beyond 25-40% of the total predation attempts ( it seems that the hunting success is still greater where the prey is very abundant). In fact, on numerous attempts to predict (or presumed such) to which I have witnessed (36) only 8 have been successful and of these 5 were the result of rake hunting, against 3 from stakeout. The observations on the hunting activities of the Eagles followed have shown that the stalking hunt seems to be favored during the winter period when it is very important for the Eagle, as indeed for most other wild animals, to minimize the expenditure of calories. In fact, in this period it is not rare for the raptor to remain fasting for more than a dozen days, while to compensate for the low temperatures a greater caloric intake would be necessary. What was stated is obviously only an indicative consideration that is anything but generalizable. Some researchers claim that Eagles prefer to pursue ambush. It is also important to remember the great importance that hunting experience has for the Golden Eagle, thus encouraging an in-depth knowledge of its territory, which is also essential for raising small children.

On one occasion during the breeding of the chicken, I observed a male eagle transiting in a vault with a hare between the legs just predated in front of the nest in which the female was placed on the edge to partial protection of the child who was 20 days old. After a long performance, which lasted about 4 minutes, the raptor went away disappearing at sight behind a rocky profile. After about twenty minutes, the Eagle reappeared at the sight always with the hare between the legs; after a further broad vault, about 3 minutes, in a slip and without hesitation he headed for the nest leaving the prey on the edge.

After leaving the male, the female, always positioned on the edge, remained inactive for over 2 hours before tearing the meat of prey to feed the chicken.

The diet is closely related to the available prey, which in turn correlates with the latitude of the area and with the seasons. In the following pairs I found that mammals are the staple food; then follow the birds, reptiles and carrion that are a good source of food, especially if there is a shortage of live prey (important winter incidence). During the summer season, especially in the southern areas (Italian Apennines, Spain, etc.), a large number of reptiles are preyed. It should be noted, however, that carrions are never given as food to the chickens in the nest and only shortly before the flight there are rare cases of feeding with meat from fresh carrion. On the Polish Tatras, for example, the Eagles rarely report any kind of reptile to the nest, while in the northern areas (eg Scandinavia), birds are almost always the dominant prey.

In areas where there is not an excessive presence of prey, probably because in the past exterminated by an irrational hunting activity and a significant alteration of the territory, it conditions not a little the reproductive phases of the pairs of Golden Eagle, reproduction often disturbed by human presences favored by accessibility of places frequented by the Eagles. It is no coincidence that only two eagles are rarely raised (probable synergy of conditions: food scarcity-disturbance). However, due exceptions remain. In fact, I could verify that a couple settled in a territory apparently "insignificant", quite often crowned their annual breeding with the flight of two specimens. Another couple, however, despite living in a protected area and apparently rich in prey, often could not even complete the hatching!

In recent years many territories are increasingly protected (national parks, regional parks, reserves, etc.), the hunting practice prohibited or strongly regulated and other human activities kept under control (at least on paper). In this way it is hoped that the territories will be able to rebalance at least in part by a few years. However, the "environmentally friendly" activities increasingly widespread within the protected areas and often promoted by the same administrations that manage these areas, in reality are not compatible at all (read tourism) causing a serious disturbance to the fauna and a taming of the quieter territories and wild. It is good to think carefully before "favoring" in any way the human presence in the mountain territory or in those equally delicate.

During the breeding of the chicken the female cleans the nest from the remains of the prey. On many occasions I have seen the female take away the intestines advanced from the feeding of the pullo; on one occasion, however, an eagle brought into the nest, where there were two 40-day-old chicks, the fresh intestines of a hare. This is one of the rare cases, at least from what I personally observed, in which the internal parts are used for feeding the chicks. It is true that not everything is always removed, so much so that when we visited the interior of a golden eagle's nest three months after nesting, we found bones, feathers and mammal fur. In general, however, the nest is kept cleanly acceptable taking into account that even the pulley itself undertakes, as far as possible, to direct its own dejections outside the nest.

As mentioned earlier, since the winter months the Eagles give rise to the usual wedding parades made of festooned flights, hooks of the claws, rotations, as well as numerous couplings. Starting from the month of February the parades are greatly accentuated and also the contribution of material to the nests becomes thicker. The young usually in some couples followed is tolerated until a few days before the laying of the eggs.

In general, between the end of March and the beginning of April, the female begins to hatch the first egg. As a rule the brooding is mainly ensured by the female, while the male is limited to replace it 1-3 times a day (at night it is always the female who takes care of the brooding, at least according to my direct experiences). During the entire period of incubation, the male almost always provides for the maintenance of the female by himself. When he has caught a prey the door on a perch where the female then goes there to feed (this division of labor remains during the first phase of the hatching of the little ones, since the female must protect them from bad weather, excessive sun or others factors). On one occasion I had the opportunity to attend a rare event (at least considered such based on my direct experiences): the male brought a small prey (perhaps a mustelid) on the edge of the nest and immediately moved away. After a few minutes the female got up from the brooding position and began to eat her prey vigorously. The operation lasted

19 minutes after which the now satiated female was regularly hatching. Previously I had never observed the female eating on the nest during the hatching of the eggs.

Usually eggs are hatched by mid-May; sometimes two chicks come to light. In the first days the female remains constantly in the nest to protect the chicks. After a few days (sometimes even up to 20-30), we can see the death of the second son, when he is present (he usually survives only in 20-30% of cases), killed by the 1st pullo (a phenomenon called "cainism") or died of natural causes. The abundance of food seems to play a fundamental role in the survival of the second child. On one occasion I verified the death of the second pullo at the age of 52 days, when it seemed that both would have reached the involo.

In general, the florid and full of vitality of the first born is opposed to the disappearance of the second chicken. It should be added that sometimes an egg or both eggs may not hatch at all (not fertilized, damaged, cooled, etc.). The development of the chicken is quite regular because the contribution of prey to the nest is normally carried out with sufficient regularity. In 5 weeks the chicken has a weight increase of 32 times.

After having changed the quilt (the first quilt is replaced by a second, more substantial, woolly and voluminous quilt), the chicken, after starting to put the feathers, gradually acquires the usual livery. At 40 days of age you can already observe in an elevated position, while after the first 40 days it begins to eat even alone. On several occasions it happened to see the female take the young, despite these had over 60 days and managed to eat alone quite easily (completely atypical).

At 70-75 days the eagle has already put the young plumage and performs exercises by beating the wings. Usually to entice the eagle to leave the nest, parents in recent days drastically decrease the intake of prey to the nest.

Usually the flight of young people takes place between the third week of July and the beginning of August (75-80 days). The first flight is always very short crowned by a clumsy and decomposed landing. In this period it is easy to

locate the young person as he continuously emits the call, especially when he sees his parents or when he follows them in flight.

It will take a few weeks for parents to learn about difficult hunting. Within the next breeding season (February-March) the eagle will be removed from the parents from the territory of origin. He will wander for new destinations in search of a free and stable territory: this is the most dangerous and difficult phase of his life. In some circumstances, I observed the young man staying for a longer or shorter period in the marginal areas of his parents' home range, but later he definitively moved away.

In the areas usually followed, I have often verified the rapid re-establishment of dismembered couples for various causes. This would show that the contingent of erratic specimens is far from inconsistent.

Although the large bird of prey is formally protected, direct and indirect human traps are far from extinct and it is not rare to find specimens of the Golden Eagle dead by human hands. It is no coincidence that seven / eight young people out of ten die of non-natural causes before they have reached sexual maturity (4-5 years).

Classication, distribution, status

Classification

The Golden Eagle, Aquila chrysaetos (Linnaeus 1758), is classified as follows:

Class = Birds

Order = Falconiformes

Family = Accipitrides

Genus = Eagle (Brisson 1760) Species = chrysaetos

There are six subspecies in the world:

chrysaetos (Linnaeus 1758)

homeyeri (Severtzov 1888)

daphanea (Severtzov 1888)

kamtschatica (Severtzov 1888)

japonica (Severtzov 1888)

canadensis (Linnaeus 1758)

The various subspecies differ slightly from each other for the size and the shade of the plumage.

The etymological origin of the term chrysaetos is from the Greek chrusos = golden and aetos = Eagle or "Golden Eagle"

Other European names:

French: Aigle royal, Aigle fauve, Aigle doré - Spanish: Aguila real - English: Golden eagle - German: Steinadler - Dutch: Steenarend - Swedish: Kungsörn

- Finnish: Maakotka - Polish: Orzel przedni - Czechoslovakia: Orol skalny.

The genus Aquila is present all over the world with the sole exception of South America. Globally there are 9 species of which 5 are present as nesting in Europe and only one in Italy (Golden Eagle). The nine species are (with the asterisk those also present in Europe):

Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) * Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) * Greater eagle eagle (Aquila clanga) * Lesser eagle eagle (Pomarina eagle) * Prey Eagle (Aquila rapax) *

Eagle of Verreaux (Aquila verreauxi) Long-tailed eagle (Aquila audax) Eagle of Gurney (Aquila gurneyi) Wahlberg Eagle (Aquila wahlbergi)

NB The Eagle of the steppes (Aquila rapax nipalensis) is a subspecies of the raptor eagle, but some authors consider it as a species in its own right (Aquila nipalensis).

Distribution

The Golden Eagle has a cosmopolitan distribution but refers only to the northern hemisphere (oloartic chorology). Through its vast area of presence is represented, as we have seen, by 6 subspecies (polytypical) that vary slightly between them for size and color. The Japanese (japonica) and North African / Spanish (homeyeri) species tend to be smaller, while the Siberian (kamtschatica) largest (Love & Watson, 1990). The American subspecies (canadensis) is the darkest, while the Russian-Scandinavian (chrysaetos) is the lightest.

Because of old and fierce persecution, it has disappeared in many areas or has greatly reduced its populations where it is still present. In recent years, however, thanks to an almost total protection practiced in most of the States in which it lives, is recovering and is re-colonizing the territories that once were theirs. In any case, the current populations are certainly smaller than those of past centuries (especially in certain areas such as in the Apennines). In addition to the risks associated with poaching as well as pollution, the main danger that hangs over the raptor is the destruction, alteration or disturbance brought to the environment where it lives (tourist activities, ski lifts, opening of roads, etc. .).

The six subspecies are so distributed (from Fasce & Fasce, 1984; 1992):

chrysaetos , Eurasia, excluding Spain, Siberia and Altai.

homeyeri, Spain, North Africa, up to Egypt, Crete and Asia Minor up to the Caucasus and Iran.

daphanea, Turkestan up to Manchuria and southwestern China, northern India and Pakistan.

kamtschatica, Asia, from western Siberia and the Altai, where eastward gradually replaces chrysaetos.

japonica, Korea and Japan.

canadensis, North America from Alaska to Mexico, Eastern Siberia.

The adults of the Golden Eagle are permanent, unlike the young who move frequently, with erratic or real migration tending to search for new territories to occupy even if placed at considerable distances. In the northernmost latitudes during the winter period, even adults migrate to head south to escape the rigors of the climate and the lack of light (northern Canada, northern Scandinavia, etc.). For example, in Finland there are 250/300 pairs. Since 90% of these couples have their own breeding area in the northern regions (Lapland), in winter I have directly verified that many specimens are moving southwards. It is also interesting to note that the "Finnish" specimens are also joined by others from the north of Russia and other districts, so that the winter estimate of the subjects present in the territory reaches 600/900 (Koskimies & Lokki, 2002). The migratory flow is recorded in March-April and September-October (Chiavetta, 1981). It must be said that the Golden Eagle in the wintering or migrating areas can present partial gregarious tendencies. In Europe, the Golden Eagle is practically present almost everywhere with populations of varying consistency: Spain, Portugal, France, Belgium, Liechtenstein, Italy, Great Britain, Switzerland, Austria, Germany, former

Czechoslovakia, former Yugoslavia, Poland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Greece, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, Turkey, European part of the former USSR.

In Italy, the Golden Eagle colonizes the entire Alpine arc, a good part of the Apennines, as well as Sardinia and Sicily.

In the rest of the world it lives in most of Asia, Northwest Africa and North America.

The Golden Eagle reproduces mainly in the mountainous areas (in the anthropized countries it has been practically "driven" from the plains), and the nests, in the Olartic Region, can be found from the sea level up to over 2000 meters. In the places where it lives, the altitudinal band in which it is possible to observe it, ranges from the sea level to over 4800 meters (personally observed by the writer over the summit of Mont Blanc).

1. Status of the species in the world

This paragraph lists with a certain approximation the status and the trend of the populations of real eagle distributed on the planet. The data are only indicative in that the changes in their consistency are very frequent. While in some geographical areas populations are the subject of extensive studies (for example, the Alps, Great Britain), many aspects remain unknown in many other areas, including, as for example for Mongolia, even the estimated population size.

Indicative status of the species / Trend of the population

Number of breeding pairs

(data taken from Watson, 1997 pag.340, unless otherwise indicated)

Italy Number of couples: 353-408 (Lipu census, 1992) - Trend: increase, even if the excessive anthropization of the territory does not allow the free expansion of the raptor

Mongolia Number of couples:? (maybe a few thousand) - Trend:? (source?)

Finland Number of couples: 250/300 (Koskimie & Lokki, 2002) - Trend: stable, slightly recovering.

Sweden Number of couples: 600-750 - Trend: stable.

Norway Number of pairs: 700-1000 - Trend: stable. Belgium Number of couples: 30-40 - Trend: decrease. Liechtenstein Number of couples: 1-2 - Trend: stable. Germany Number of couples: 48-50 - Trend: increase. Austria Number of couples: 200-250 - Trend: increase. Switzerland Number of couples: 200-250 - Trend: stable France Number of couples: 279-285 - Trend: stable.

Spain Number of couples: 1192-1265 - Trend: stable.

Andorra Number of pairs: 3 - Trend: stable.

Portugal Number of couples: 15-20 - Trend: threatened / decreased.

Croatia Number of couples: 100-150 - Trend: stable. Slovenia Number of couples: 10-25 - Trend: stable. Albania Number of couples: 40-50 - Trend: threatened? Macedonia Number of couples: 100 - Trend: decrease. Greece Number of couples: 155-205 - Trend: decrease.

Turkey Number of couples: 100-1000? (Watson, 1994) - Trend: stable?

Hungary Number of couples: 2 - Trend: increase. Romania Number of couples: 28-30 - Trend: decrease. Bulgaria Number of couples: 130-140 - Trend:?

Czech Republic Number of couples: 50 (Hammond & Person, 1993) - Trend: stable

Slovak Republic Number of couples: 50 - Trend: stable. Poland Number of couples: 15 - Trend: slight decrease Russia Number of pairs: 200-400 - Trend: stable.

Estonia Number of couples: 25-30 - Trend: stable.

Lithuania Number of couples: 10 - Trend:?

Ukraine Number of couples: 5-6 - Trend:?

Great Britain Number of couples: 424 + 87 blocks, concentrated in Scotland (only 1-2 couples in England) (Dennis et al., 1984) - Trend: stable.

Israel Number of couples: 10 (Gensbol, 1992) - Trend: stable / increase.

Egypt Number of couples: 1-2 (Gensbol, 1992) - Trend:?

Tunisia Number of couples: 16 (Gensbol, 1992) - Trend:?

Algeria Number of couples: limited number (Gensbol, 1992) - Trend:?

Morocco Number of couples: 100-500 (Gensbol, 1992) - Trend: stable?

Canada Number of couples: overall perhaps not estimated (several thousand?), But certainly less than the potential of the territory - Trend:? (source?)

United States Number of couples: 50,000-70,000, estimate (including 20/30% of non-nesting subjects) Trend: decrease (depending on the states) (Watson, 1997, modified)

Japan Number of couples: 120-140 - Trend: stable (source?)

Total estimated world population: 125.00 - 250.000 copies (Watson, 1997)

Description identification e general characteristics

1. Description and identification in nature

The adults of Golden Eagle do not differ in the plumage; they vary in size, as the female is always larger than the male (reverse sexual dimorphism, DSI). The species is monogamous; only the death of one of the two partners interrupts the bond of the couple. However some authors (eg Martin, 1993) state that it is not certain that the pairs of Golden Eagle are linked for life. Love and Watson (1990) cite rare cases in which a female is chased and replaced by another. In any case, however, it can be said that generally couples are stable and durable. Evident is the chromatic dimorphism between young and adult.

In relation to age, the Golden Eagle is classified as follows:

Chick or pullus = up to 70-80 days (up to the flight)

Young or juveniles = 1st year of life

Immature and subadult = 2nd - 4th year of life

Adult = from the 5th year of life onwards

Chick

Indole: inetto .

First quilt: not very thick, white or tending to gray.

Second duvet: thicker, woolly, soft with a whitish or pinkish color.

Iris: dark.

Wax: yellowish.

Beak: dark.

Legs: yellowish.

Development of the first pens: starting from the remiges and the helmsman.

Complete plating: 8-9 weeks.

Weight increase up to the fly: 32 times the initial weight.

Young person (1st year)

General coloring: uniform, dark brown almost black.

Chromatic evidence: showy white spots roughly in the central part of the wings (remiges) and on the tail with an evident dark terminal band. Strong contrast between the white and dark parts (there are rare cases of juvenile plumage with white parts of the wings little extended or even absent or almost).

Wax: flesh-colored.

Beak: dark.

Legs: yellow.

Tarsi: fit.

Legs : covered with feathers (they form the so-called "calzoni").

NB Sometimes the garment can already have weak golden reflections.

Immature and subadult (2nd - 4th year)

General coloring: gradual paling with a tendency towards brown; progressive loss of uniformity.

Chromatic evidence: reduction of the extension and of the chromatic contrast of the showy white spots of the wings and the tail.

Wax: flesh-colored.

Beak: dark.

Legs: yellow.

Tarsi: fit.

Legs : covered with feathers.

Head: the golden reflections are accentuated.

Adult (over 5th year)

General coloring: definitive acquisition of brown coloring. In fact, the light and dark brown feathers are the most evident feature of adult plumage. The secondary remiges appear lighter than the dark brown of the primaries and the helmsman. In the distance, the adult's plumage can appear almost uniformly dark. Sometimes elderly individuals with white scapular spots are observed (Fasce & Fasce, 1992).

Number of main pens: primary remiges, 10 - secondary remiges, 12-16 - helmsman, 12-14.

Definitive coloring: 5th -7th year of life.

Duvet: white.

Chromatic evidence: elimination of white spots on wings and tail.

Iris: brown.

Wax: yellow.

Beak: greyish tending towards black towards the tip.

Legs: yellow with dark nails.

Tarsi: fit.

Legs : covered with feathers.

Head: the golden reflections are further intensified. When the head is well lit, the golden color is evident; hence the English name Golden aegle (Golden Eagle).

NB 1 - There are rare cases of variations in plumage in adults. Some keep small white patches in the center of the wings (personal observation). This sometimes causes confusion for the approximate identification of age (displacement between coloration of the plumage and actual age).

NB 2 - Variations of the plumage tones and the dimensions of the adults in relation to the geographic location. Slightly smaller eagles in the western southern range.

1. The pens and the suit

1. Penne

Primary remiges in adults have a tendency to be dark (brownish-blackish) with a lighter shade on the inside of the pen; in some cases there are also irregular maculatures in the middle-low section. The banner for most of these feathers is smeared.

The secondary ones have the apical part dark, clear streaks in the middle tract and, at the base, in the internal flag, clear coloration.

The helmsmen have a wide dark apical band (brownish-blackish), a paler and more mottled color in the middle part, while the base is characterized by a pale brown to ash gray color hue.

The primary coverts are brown at the apex, spotted irregularly in the middle and clear at the base.

The primary remiges amount to 11 with an approximate length of between

6.5 cm and 60 cm. The secondary remiges are 17 and have an approximate length between 37 and 38 cm approx. The helmsman, on the other hand, are 12 with an approximate length between 33 and 37 cm.

From the observations on the contrast of the color of the plumage and the extent of the white spots placed on the wings of young men enveloped by 6 pairs of Golden Eagle within 7 years, I have obtained that almost 50% showed little spots, especially on the wings, while only 35/40% had a classic coloring and a 10/15% average.

On one occasion I witnessed the flight of a young man with only white helms while the remiges were almost completely dark. The rest of the plumage was regularly dark, however, so that the light color of the tail feathers stood out in a particular way. The parents had a darker overall coloration compared to the other pairs of adult Eagles allocated in the neighboring territories. I have verified a case on a young embalmed subject of total absence of clear youthful spots. In another circumstance, a young man of the year was devoid of the light color of the helmsman.

It seems that the males take the adult plumage one year before the females (Nelson, in Teresa, 1980 by Fasce & Fasce, 1984).

1. Muta

Differences between adult, immature and sub-adult specimens. Possible individual variations.

Adults: from March-April to September.

Consistency: not all pens are replaced every year.

Immature and sub-adult: progressive multi-year change starting from the head and neck; lastly the helmsman and the last primary remain.

NB 1 - Generally the nesting specimens change later than the non-breeding ones (Glutz et al. , 1971).

NB 2 - Some Authors assert that some primaries often remain young until the fourth year of life (Jollie, 1947, Cramp & Simmons, 1980 in Fasce & Fasce, 1992).

1. Various features

1. 3.4.1.Meaning organs

The Eagles, like most of the birds of prey, have a very acute sight of an action capacity that is 8-10 times that of the human (three times according to certain Authors - Bergmann, 1994). The eagles have their eyes placed frontally with a total field of view of 250 ° against the 340 ° of birds that have their eyes positioned laterally. The binocular field of view is 50 °. The eyes, as well as being endowed with common lower and upper protective eyelids, possess, as in other raptors, a third membrane called "nictitating membrane". It helps to keep the cornea moist and clean.

The hearing of L'Aquila, sensitive enough, is useful in the activities of the couple and becomes even more important during the breeding of the offspring, since this often calls the parents even after the flight. The voice is well developed enough to allow L'Aquila to be heard even at a considerable distance. However, the emission of sounds and sounds is not common in

adults. The calls of the Eagles are accentuated during the reproductive period. The chicks emit faint sounds already since they are still in the egg. For the request of food, the young eagle is very vociferous, while parents often emit calls to the nest with their prey. During the brooding, on the other hand, the female often calls the male, especially when it is near the nest (in these circumstances the male is more vociferous). Similarly, the vocalizations of the adults are sometimes heard during the wedding parades or in the active defense of the nesting sites by conspecific intruders.

The callback in play-back, if well executed, can often annoy the eagles creating a certain turmoil and agitation (it is a practice to avoid absolutely). Also the verse of the eagle owl, during the daytime hours near the nest, causes attention and alert from L'Aquila intent on brooding (personal observation).

The sense of smell, although certainly developed, seems to be completely insignificant, as indeed in most bird species, including raptors (Chiavetta, 1981, Bergmann, 1994). The only certain exception among birds of prey belongs to the red-necked vulture (Cathartes aura), widespread in the Americas and able to locate the carcasses also with the sense of smell. Among the other groups of birds there are numerous species that use the sense of smell for many daily activities (kiwi, geese, tail-headed procellaria, etc. - Bergmann, 1994).

The sense of position, rotation and acceleration are indispensable elements for the bird's domain of airspace (Bergmann, 1994). The sum and combination of these elements determines the so-called "sense of balance" placed in the inner ear (Bergmann, 1994). To coordinate these sensations with movements the cerebellum intervenes, well developed and functional (Bergmann, 1994). The sensory perceptions of birds could be even more efficient than is believed.

1. Flight techniques

The Golden Eagle is a bird of prey with great agility and extraordinary elegance when flying. Anyone who has observed his wide and solemn vaulting at least once remains fascinated.

The large size of the raptor in some way conceals its exceptional agility and the extraordinary accumulation of forces that is concentrated in its members. In fact, when the Eagle walks on the ground or on the nest, it appears extremely awkward and awkward, but as soon as it takes flight, here is shown in its majesty.

The physical structure of the Eagles takes advantage of all the elements that need to acquire a perfect flight technique. The great development of the wings allows to keep the planed flight for a long time (preferential flight); for the directional displacements the tail helms respond well to their task.

In general there are four types of flights:

1. Beaten flight
2. Stationary flight (rare)
3. Flying flight
4. Planed flight

The beaten flight is very rare in the Eagles that fleetingly occur only in certain particular conditions (absence of drafts, cold and rainy weather, transport of a

prey from the bottom to the top, etc.). The maximum duration of time I have timed of an Eagle in the air beaten continuously with very short pauses was

4.10 minutes.

The stationary flight also called "holy spirit" (hovering), quite occasional in the Golden Eagle, is expressed in remaining motionless in the air, quickly beating the wings or taking advantage of the counter-wind (hanging or surplace). The "holy spirit" used exceptionally by L'Aquila is that against wind in the surplace and has however a short duration. Some species such as the kestrel, the grillaio, the buzzard or the biancone assiduously practice the "holy spirit" that allows them to analytically explore a precise portion of territory to facilitate the identification of prey.

The most usual type of flight in Eagles and generally by all the large birds of prey, is the one that combines the techniques of the flight gliding and that sailed (third and fourth type). It allows considerable energy savings, as it can be performed without wing beating. This flight technique uses the ascending warm currents that are formed from the ground as a result of solar irradiation or as "suspended current in a mountainous slope or on the waves of the sea" (Bergmann, 1994). In fact, the slopes sufficiently exposed to solar irradiation lend themselves very well to forming these hot currents. The warm air, in fact, lighter, is brought upwards creating the ideal conditions for the raptor. The rocky substratum of a mountain area, inter alia, heats up faster than a similar environment covered with forests and pastures. Here therefore the configuration of the ground and its exposure can facilitate or less the formation of these currents. In the experience of this, often, Aquila, in the first part of the day, prefers to attend the slopes that heat up faster.

This type of flight can be analyzed, as we have already seen, in two phases: "vaulting" (soaring) and "gliding or gliding" (gliding). To be able to sail the Golden Eagle must first bring within a warm upward current of sufficient amplitude (at least 25-30 meters), open at most the wings and the tail and make slow circular orbits to stay within the current hot (sudden air gaps are filled with short wing strokes). When the Eagle has reached a height that it considers adequate, it exits the vertical thermal flow of the current and moves directionally by gliding in a straight line with possible small variations, with a gradual loss of altitude or sudden (planed flight). After having traveled the desired route to reconquer the altitude, it must fit into another thermal and so on. In planing an Eagle can travel tens of kilometers, even if on average it does not exceed 5-10 kilometers inside or outside its home range. The speed of glide is inversely proportional to the opening of the wings: the more these are collected, the faster the speed increases. When the Eagle has to beat it completely or almost closes the wings and descends with vertical trajectory or delineating an angle of a few degrees. Sometimes in the glide the Eagle helps with some quick wing stroke.

With this technique the Golden Eagle does not spend energy as it does not beat its wings. When the bird of prey keeps wings very open, which is a characteristic of the species, while when it is gliding, the wings are turned slightly up or almost level, rarely downwards. In addition to the wings, the helmsmen also play an important role in the coordination of the flight.

With regard to the maximum altitudes reached by air from the Eagles it must be said that they can easily exceed even the 4,500 m.

A swooping Royal Eagle can reach 300 km / h (Baumgartner, 1988), but this is a speed that is not as usual as it is probably customary to the peregrine falcon. Generally in the fastest descents does not exceed 160 km / h.

The Eagles in flight, especially if hunting, touch the rocky slopes to project their own shadow. The inspection to the altitude pastures is done with overhead flight that accurately follows the roughness of the ground. The return of L'Aquila to its nest is almost always through a mixed phase of descent-ascent.

From the continuous field observations gained over the years I have been able to see how important the daily experience is for the Golden Eagle. It is true that many behaviors are innate, but the refinement of hunting, flying, patrolling the territory, and so on, is improved thanks to the practice exercised continuously. The flight of the Eagles on certain occasions seems almost to free itself from the laws of universal gravitation, making sudden changes of direction, very tight vines, beaten to perpendicular and other acrobatics. Ragni (1976) rightly writes " ... From these, and numerous other characteristics, derive the great flight capabilities, the extreme versatility of the flying 'car', which makes the Golden Eagle the most eclectic and masterful flyer, with the same of dimensions, of the whole oloartic Region ... ". However, it can not be concealed that, especially in the narrow valleys, the Eagles can have some difficulty calculating the direction of displacement, difficulty that the raptor overcomes without difficulty, settling for 4-5 seconds on the first useful point from where it starts again taking the desired direction (personal observation).

The numerous observations aimed at the study of the flight of the Eagles have convinced me that often the bird of prey is kept in flight in its various forms (vaulting, acrobatics, etc.), not always with the purpose of scouring the territory or hunting, but also to improve in the specific practice, to stretch the muscles (especially during the hatching) and perhaps also for some other causes unknown to us. Many times I have seen the Eagles flit for a long time without any apparent reason, doing pirouettes, beaten, cabrates or long sails, and then rest on a rocky outcrop. Spectacular are the descents to "parachute" that sometimes does to return to the nest or to go down vertically having little space available. In this case it is not uncommon to see the Eagle position the legs dangling forward.

As we have seen, the Golden Eagle is a perfect flyer with power and agility. Even in the presence of strong winds, it manages to control the flight in a safe way, even if sometimes it has to perform special postures of the wing and tail set-up. On certain occasions if the wind is particularly strong and the bird of prey carries a prey between its paws, to arrive properly to the nest it can make intermediate stops (personal observations). In other circumstances I happened to observe the Eagle let passively carry by the thrusts of the wind.

When it comes down to the ground or arrives in the nest, the Golden Eagle usually spreads its legs at the last moment (the griffin instead protrudes its legs forward long before landing). Even when it catches the prey on the ground it does not anticipate much the extension of the legs. As we know the Golden Eagle to economize flight, it is intimately linked to the presence of hot air currents; on many occasions, however, thanks to its agility and muscle power can be active in all circumstances. On one occasion, I observed an adult golden eagle resting on the ground on an abundant snow blanket of soft consistency. At the time of leaving, he had quite a few problems!

3. daily activity

Eagles can theoretically be active from sunrise to sunset, even if they do not actually start flying if the air has not heated up sufficiently. Usually, during the central hours of the day, especially if the temperature is very high as it is often in summer, the Eagles do not fly at all. During the day, the time spent in flight (general patrol of the territory or hunting phase) does not normally exceed one third of the total time (Chiavetta, 1981). In winter, when the days are particularly inclement, the Eagle may not fly at all, as it can withstand even long fasts. When the hours of light are reduced, as in winter, the bird, if the weather conditions allow it, is much more active, because the time needed for hunting is consequently less. The Eagles spend many hours of the day resting on rocky spurs, ledges, branches of large trees and shrubs often placed along the steep sides of the valleys (perches). Usually they are positioned in the sun to make real sunbathing. During the hot season, however, they do not disdain the shade so much that I have observed many times the Eagles stay for hours in the shade and move as the sun moves; during these long breaks they look around, clean the plumage (preening) and monitor the surrounding area. Nighttime hours are spent on perches (often, as mentioned, also used during the day) placed generally near the nesting sites. The individuals of a couple sometimes sleep close to each other (personal observation can not be generalized). Under the perches, especially if habitual, there are clear signs of presence (excrement, wads, etc.).

The most unusual hours in which the eagles were seen in flight are documented by Ferrario (1985) who, among other things, observed an adult Golden Eagle to hunt at dawn, between 3.40 and 5.30, solar time on 29 May, a black grouse (Tetrao tetrix). Personally I have observed on several occasions during the summer season the Golden Eagle in flight already at 6 in the morning. However, this behavior can not be considered habitual even though as previously mentioned, the flying power of the Eagles allows them these performances. Obviously for the people of the far north (eg Finland), the question of timetables change completely since, as is well known, in late spring / summer there is always light. In fact, I have often observed eagles in flight at 11 or 2 in the morning! It is reiterated that it is not rare cases, especially among young people, of flights aimed at simple exercise or pastime.

There are cases in which the Eagles during the day seem to respect the real "schedules" of behavior (passages in a place at a certain time, posting on a perch at a certain time of day, etc.).

1. Demonstrative behavior

The Golden Eagle, like other animals, is able to express a specific language by varying its behavior; the circumstances that generate behavioral variations in L'Aquila are of two types, one related to particular situations, the other related to reproductive activity. In particular, we note:

1. Terrifical attitude

Interested individuals: chicks and adults.

Purpose: to take on a more aggressive appearance and give the impression of being bigger than what you actually are.

Method: ruffle the feathers, especially those of the head and keep the wings down open or half open.

Note: it is not uncommon to observe a pullus of the Golden Eagle which, in the face of danger, crouches carefully in the nest. On the other hand, when the poultry is sufficiently developed even if it is not yet able to fly in the face of a close threat (for example, a mountaineer near the nest), it may fall prematurely thus coming to a sure death. It happens unfortunately that, despite their bulk, the Eagles if disturbed in the nest suddenly flee with serious risk of offspring or eggs. Personally I happened to observe broods failed because of long absences of the female during the hatching following the disorder caused by clumsy photographers, hikers, mountaineers, or other human activities (for example over extended helicopters in the nest area) .

1. Intimidation

Interested individuals: young people and adults.

Purpose: to manifest antagonism towards the like and towards other species. Method: many times the intimidation towards a fellow or a potential enemy is expressed in flight by the repeated beatings, evident evidence of the claws, hooks for the claws, etc.

1. Request for food

Interested individuals: pullus, young and adult.

Purpose: to request food for food (pullus and young) or for courtship (adult).

1. Wedding parades

Interested individuals: sub-adults and adults. Purpose: mutual courtship of the couple members.

Method: during the breeding season there is an accentuation of the territorial flights, among which the best known is the "festooned flight", series of beaten and linear ascents or with rapid directional change, to which is added the execution of pirouettes in air with gliding flight and wide orbits in perfect synchrony. Particularly striking are the acrobatic evolutions of the male that have the intent to attract the female; at a certain moment the male briefly hooks to it through the claws, simulating a feigned fight, or falling almost deadly. Sometimes the young person of the year (personal observation that can not be generalized) can participate in these parades. It is quite rare to see the eagles intent to make real turns (looping), while the most common is the "half screw", especially those intended to intimidate and drive away the corvids that annoy them (masters of the looping and half-lives they are the imperial crows).

The flights described above do not only characterize the breeding season, even if at that stage they are more frequent.

1. The ecological role

The ecological role played by the Golden Eagle in a given environment is of fundamental importance for the balance of biocoenosis. Instead, think that Aquila, like other birds of prey, has been the object for centuries of discrimination and falsity of its role in the natural economy! It was pointed out as the exterminator of "minor" fauna, as well as domestic animals including lambs and goats; in this perspective the Golden Eagle was persecuted by every means (poisoned bites, traps, direct killings, destruction of the nests,

etc.). To this must be added the damage caused by the looting of nests for the trade of falconers or collectors greedy for owning Golden Eagle eggs.

Nature, which obviously does not take into account the preconceptions from which man lets himself be guided, has placed the Eagle at a high level of the natural chain (superpredator) and has entrusted her with important tasks, among which there certainly is to destroy, as man thinks, his food sources! Rather! It performs a valuable regulatory action by eliminating excess individuals and in most cases affected by impairments, or injured, sick, inexperienced and so on.

There is evidence of the importance of predators when considering that where man has altered the balance there have been serious environmental imbalances, such as excessive reproductions of herbivores and rodents. It must also be considered that the population of predators, in our case of the Golden Eagle, is conditioned by appropriate mechanisms of self-control, to which is added the close relationship between reproductive success and the availability of food sources. To refer to another type of predator, accurate studies on the Arctic wolf, have shown that the seasonal fluctuations of the populations, and therefore of the births, are in relation with the prolificity of the caribou populations that represent their main food source so that if they increased one, the others increased, and vice versa.

To conclude, it is necessary to underline that the food withdrawal carried out by the Golden Eagle in a given territory is very low compared to the biomass existing in the territory itself.

General description of the Golden Eagle

 

Dimensions: total length Male 82-88 cm, Female 85-95 cm (about 65-70 cm without meat and plumage); wingspan 200-220-230 cm (188-212 male, 215-277 female Fasce & Fasce, 1984); wing M 60-65 cm, F 64-72 cm (the three segments of the skeleton of the wing ie humerus, radius-ulna, carpus- metacarpus, measure on average from the humerus 20.5 cm - 24.5 cm - 15 cm for a total indicative of 60 cm); tail M 30-36, F 33-38 cm; beak 38-50 mm (markedly shorter than the skull box and at the apex has a simple hook); skull on average 7 cm; chest without lining on average 8 cm wide x 13.5 cm in length; tarsus 82-130 mm (the three segments of the skeleton of the paw ie femur, tibia-tarsus, tarsus-metatarsal not counting the fingers measure on average from the body 14.2 cm - 17 cm - 10.3 cm for a total indicative of 41.5 cm).

Weight: M 3800 g (3250-4400), F 5000 g (3750-6600). The female is typically 20% heavier and 10% coarser. Maximum weight 7000 g (Love & Watson, 1990)

Habitat: mountainous areas open sometimes even at low altitudes; flat areas in the north and east of the range (tundra, taiga).

Reproductive period: from March to July-August.

Voice: adults in general are not very vociferous, except for the reproductive period; the chicken and the young man are rather loquacious. The verse of adults is similar to the barking of a small dog. The call sounds more or less like this: "kiok-kiok-kiok-kiok-kiok, hua-hua-hua, iiuu". The chicken and the young repeat the verse "kiok-kiok-kiok" for a long time.

Nest: on rocky walls, rarely on large trees. Material: branches, sticks and stems of all kinds; during the nesting it can be covered inside with hardwood and coniferous branches, which are constantly replenished during reproduction. The same nests can be used for many years, increasing in volume (new-built nests are not very visible). A couple can have up to twelve nests even if one or two are the favorites (Love & Watson, 1990).

Eggs: 2, rarely 1 or 3, laid at 3-4 days intervals. Shape and color: roundish, opaque, whitish, sometimes speckled with brown, chestnut red and pale gray. There may be variations in color and size between the eggs of the same brood (Glutz et al. , 1971, personal observation) Size: 76.7 x 59.4 mm; the weight varies between 130 to 160 g.

Nested: 1

Cova: 43-45 days

Flight: 63-83 / 85 days (extreme data) Maturity of young people: 4-5 years. Final plumage: 5-7 years Abnormalities of plumage: yes

Feeding: medium-large mammals, medium-sized birds, reptiles, carrion, the latter especially in winter.

Movements: sedentary in most territories. Partial migrant in the northernmost latitudes (over 55 ° -65 ° N parallel in relation to winter stiffness and light hours). Young, immature and erratic subadults.

Pair bond: monogamous.

Longevity: the species is rather long-lived. In captivity, it is over 50 years old (Chiavetta, 1981) while in freedom it reaches an average of 15-20 years of life. The oldest specimen, ringed when it was a pullus, was found at the age of twenty-five and eight months (Chiavetta, 1981; Love & Watson, 1990). The size of the population remains stable over time thanks to the longevity of adults not considering the direct and indirect negative human interventions.

Status: recovering in recent years, after a notable decline even if the excessive anthropization of the territory does not allow the free expansion of the bird of prey.

Similar species (same genus): Imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca) , Greater eagle eagle (Aquila clanga) , Lesser eagle eagle (Aquila pomarina) , Rapid eagle (Aquila rapax) , Verreaux eagle (Aquila verreauxi) , Long-tailed eagle ( Aquila audax) , Eagle of Gurney (Aquila gurneyi) , Eagle of Walberg (Aquila walbergi) .

 

Distinctive features of golden eagle in nature

 

1. Proportional and elegant head, prominent from the body.
2. The eyes are large and expressive enough to give it a proud and wild appearance.
3. The beak, robust and curved (aquilino), is exceptionally strong, able to rip even the hardest meat.
4. Yellowish and fleshy beak wax. The nostrils open in it.
5. Sensitive ear, but not visible.
6. Long wings compared to the body and wide.
7. Well proportioned tail and generally large and long as the width of the wing (Gensbol, 1992).

8. Very prominent and slender head.

Wings kept in V during the vaulting. When plana can keep the wings flat, while rarely, and only when it goes down to the ground or on the prey, are turned down.

The shape of the wings has a curved "S" shape.

The apical primary feathers in vaulting are well opened and often assume the typical typed appearance.

The coloring of the adults is quite uniform with a golden head (from yellow to pale brown) and variations in the hue of the plumage depending on the geographical location. With good lighting it is possible to see numerous clear streaks (base of the remiges, upper coverts). On the other hand, the young have a uniformly dark plumage with evident white spots on the wings and tail. No seasonal variation.

Despite the large dimensions in flight it is always very agile and light.

Marked sexual dimorphism (female larger than the male) but not always distinguishable in nature if the subjects are spaced from each other.

Tarsi shod.

Very evident and powerful are the legs with long and robust claws (up to 8-9 cm) that allow you to tighten without "forgiving" the prey. Extremely mobile, they snap shut. It is up to them the main function of capture and killing of prey.

The "legs" are covered with dark feathers forming the so-called "trousers".

It easily climbs in spiral gaining the quota through the use of the ascensional currents of hot air, then it plana long or it completes wide turns in a determined zone. When it beats its wings, it does so with decisive and short strokes. It prefers a sailed flight.

Maintains the set-up in the flight without too much trouble even in the presence of strong winds.

When hunting, inspect mountain sides or altitude prairies with near- grazing flight to catch potential prey.

 

Habitat

1. Premise

The Golden Eagle occupies in most cases mountain areas (once present even at low altitudes, but in some countries the anthropization of the territory have relegated it mostly in the quieter mountain environments) rich in rocky walls and large exposed surfaces; the former constitute the environment of choice for the defense of the nest, the latter appear as the ideal scenario for hunting. However, in some geographical regions (for example Northern Europe, Mongolia, etc.) the Eagles may occupy areas where the rock faces are scarce or even absent; in that case, as we have seen several times, the nest is placed on large trees or in the absence of these directly on the ground (very rare and localized case). In Mongolia, the observation of Aquiles, which hover over the immense steppes of the plateaus, is relatively frequent. Also the populations living in the tundra, in the extreme north, are also affected.

1. Subdivision of the territory

The territory occupied by the couple can be schematically divided as follows:

Home range: total area occupied.

Nesting territory: nesting territory as a whole.

Nesting site: real nesting site.

Hunting territory: hunting site

1. Home range

The development and the size of the home range does not refer to a "standard" model but varies according to the geographical areas in which it is located.

Generally it consists of one or more contiguous valleys with the presence of precipitous rock faces and altitude grasslands. The higher areas of the home range are mostly used for hunting during the summer, while during the winter the hunt is practiced in the areas further downstream where the snow is shorter and where it condenses a greater number of prey. The presence of dense forests hinders the predatory activity of the bird of prey.

The overall area of the home range varies considerably depending on the faunal-environmental conditions. It can range from a minimum of 25-30 km 2 to a maximum of about 500 km 2 (last data: Parellada & De Juan, 1981 in Fasce & Fasce, 1984). More commonly, the larger territories have an extension of 2-300 km 2 . The considerable expansion of the home range of a pair can mean that there are very wooded areas or poor prey (hypotrophic) or in any case very dispersed. In the Alps, the home range is generally smaller than in the Apennines. In fact, in the Alpine region, an area rich in potential prey, it goes down in some places up to a minimum of 40 km 2 , with an average of 100-120 km 2 (Fasce & Fasce, 1984); in the Swiss canton of Grisons, on a territory of 4300 km 2 , live 44 pairs of Golden Eagle with an average of 97.7 km 2 per couple (Baumgartner, 1988), while on the

Apennines (generally hypotrophic region) the average also rises over 200 km 2 (80-350 km 2 ). Particularly interesting are the data concerning Scotland, where the territories measure from 25 to 75 km 2 (Love & Watson, 1990) and are among the smallest in Europe and perhaps in the world. In Scotland, among other things, there are very numerous overlaps of part of the area (between two couples) (Martin, 1993). In the United States, a couple can even cover 180 km 2 (Love & Watson, 1990).

The calculation I made on 9 pairs of Golden Eagle settled in the central Apennines, has detected an average width of all indicative of the home range of 124.4 Km 2 per couple with a peak of 160 Km 2 and minimum of 100 (the calculation also includes the territory that can not be used for vital needs).

To the above data a 10-30% must be added because the Eagles to exercise the predation often push themselves even beyond the main zones (this happens above all in the hypotrophic localities).

In the evaluation of the home range surfaces it should be considered that not all the territory can be used by L'Aquila, as it also includes portions of land not exploitable, such as the highest peaks, cliffs or, as mentioned, the densely wooded areas . It is also to be considered that hunting areas can sometimes be exploited by several contiguous couples. For example, on the Tatra Mountains (Carpathians) on many occasions I have found part of the hunting territory exploited by both the Polish and the neighboring Slovaks. In fact, these couples have at least 20-30% of their territory in common. The extension of the home range is also conditioned by the presence of man, in the sense that the more the area is anthropized, the more it tends to shrink the territory available to L'Aquila. If the size of the territory is reduced to below the minimum potential (minimum in relation to the trophic availability), the Aquila leaves the area.

Therefore, in regions with lower density of potential prey, the home range extends over a larger area (carryng capacity).

The theoretical home range present and passed in an area analyzed by me in the central Apennines, including also the territory that can not be used by the Eagles, was as follows:

Area studied: 2200 km 2

N ° pairs of Golden Eagle currently present: 8 Average area: 275 km 2

N ° pairs previously present in the same territory: 14 Average area of 157 km 2

In wild territories (eg in Canada) it can happen that potential prey while being numerous and varied can be spread over a large area. It follows that the home range of the Eagles allocated in those territories will be very large. As we said, the presence of dense forests not only hamper predatory activity of the bird of prey; however the specimens settled in mostly wooded areas (eg in the taiga), are perfectly adapted to make the most of the clearings that here and there open in the forest. In a couple from central / northern Finland whose habitat obviously had a large portion covered by trees, I noticed that he managed to hunt (or try to do it) quite frequently even at the edge of the forest and in small clearings.

Smaller birds of prey than large ones tend to keep smaller nesting territories and a smaller range to get food. It follows that smaller birds of prey tend to have greater densities than large ones (Newton, 1991).

The body dimensions, the dimensions of the territory and the reproductive density seem to be in close correlation between them (Newton, 1991). In any case, the size of the territory of residence depends on the availability of food. The reproductive density is maximum where the main prey is more numerous. Thus the density of breeding raptors is dependent on prey populations.

Long-term changes in the density of birds of prey are often associated with human activities.

The density of real eagle pairs established in a territory varies according to the geographical location of the presence considered. In Scotland, for example, in some localities, even 40 couples on 1000 km 2 of surface can register (Love & Watson, 1990), but instead go down to 8-10 in Scandinavia and only 4 in Italy over 1000 km 2 (Love & Watson, 1990) (average references and indicative only).

1. Nesting territory, nesting site

The nesting territory constitutes the central and culminal part of the home range and is actively defended by the possible presence of conspecifics. The core of the nesting territory is the actual nesting site represented by the voluminous nest (or more than one). This sharp distinction of the living territory of the Golden Eagle is attenuated in those territories where the orographic conformation does not clearly identify the various sectors (eg flat areas of Scandinavia, Siberia or northern Canada).

The nests are located in most cases on usually very large precipitated walls. To build its nest, the Eagle exploits the holes or the natural fractures of the rock, or even ledges that present, however, a certain protection upwards; sometimes the nest, placed in a rocky ravine, is also composed of an external part that rests on large protruding bushes. On several occasions, nests built on rocky ledges have been found without any upward protection; on the contrary, such protection is very important because it repairs the bad weathered chicken, as well as from strong direct insolation. If forced (due to lack of large walls) the Eagles can build their nest even on small rocky walls; in this case they try to camouflage it with extreme care.

In places where the rocky walls (Northern Europe, Siberia, etc.) are scarce, the Golden Eagle, as already noted, soles build its nest on large trees, usually of conifers, so that in Sweden the average age of the trees used would be 320 years (Gensbol, 1992) (a nest that I located in central-northern Sweden, was precisely located on a pine of considerable age). In this case the lack of coverage of the nest forces the Eagle to resort to numerous precautions, such as that which consists in covering the nest even before the deposition to keep it free from the. However, even the nests placed on the tree can sometimes present some form of protection thanks to the branches of the branches or the trunk of the tree itself (personal observation). Except for rare exceptions, the nests are placed in areas at a lower altimetric level than the main hunting ground, in order to facilitate the return to the nest in glide with the prey. However, this characteristic of the altitudinal position of the nests is typical of the mountain areas, while it becomes relative in the flat or weakly undulating areas (eg in Finland). Nests on trees in central and

southern Europe (Alps-Apennines) are rarely reported. Nests used by several generations of Eagles can also be hundreds of years old.

The nests, consisting of the overlap of 2-meter-long branches, are reused year after year with a continuous supply of woody material; this determines precisely the bulkiness of the nest. Two nests that I directly verified and measured presented the following data:

1. Width 125 cm - Length 210 cm - Height 220 cm
2. Width 130 cm front, 180 cm back - Length 220 cm - Height 70 cm

In general, the depth of the cup is always minimal, as happens in the nests of most raptors.

It is noteworthy that branches are added even if the nest is occupied for nesting, but in this case it is always about green branches. It seems that the continuous supply of material in the nest is also a way of reaffirming the possession, so much so that the specific circumstance may also concern the other nests of the area, although they are not occupied for nesting. In the breeding territory Aquila has at least 2 to 4 nests with a maximum of 10 and a minimum of 1. I have recorded some rare cases of a presence of twelve nests per couple with the preference for one or two of them. In fact, usually usually 2 to 4 nests are chosen and it is not rare that the nesting insists for several years in a row in the same nest. If a couple has only two nests available and one of them is particularly disturbed, it may happen that over the years the same nest is always chosen. In other rare cases it happens that a couple has only one nest available (personal observation). Every year, before nesting, Aquila begins to frequent more nests, bringing new material to restructure them; then, a few days before the deposition, the raptor chooses the nest in which it will nest. My personal experience has recorded the cases of some couples (Central Apennines, Scottish Highlands, Carpathians, Northern Finland) who have favored the same nest for several consecutive seasons while having others available. The alternation of the nests seems to be due to the need to "rest" the nest used last to be conveniently sanitized (Newton, 1979) especially if the previous breeding has been successful. It is rare for Aquila to build a new nest in its territory.

As previously noted, the nests are almost always located in quiet and isolated places, far from disturbances of human activities. However, this is not always true as there are cases in which streets and houses are located in areas adjacent to the nest (but always at a minimum safety distance). This shows that Aquila has become accustomed to living with the pre-existing human presence in the most populated areas, provided that there is no direct human disturbance. If instead suddenly a road is built or any other artifact is activated that can alter an area until then quiet and therefore favorable to the presence of L'Aquila, it is my personal opinion that there is the absolute certainty that the raptor will abandon that territory forever .

In the nesting territory the couple of Golden Eagle has not only the nests, but also has perches, usually placed on rocky spurs, on ledges, on branches of trees, etc. .. Most of them are used to rest, or to do sunbathing, or sleeping; others to pluck prey. This does not exclude the possibility, among other things, that the eagle uses as perches random points in the area. Usually every roost is used for a specific function.

As we have just seen, we know that each pair of Golden Eagle strenuously defends its nesting sites from conspecifics, while it is more tolerant when cohabitation concerns marginal parts of the home range in which a certain overlap of the areas is usually allowed. It is good to underline that the nests

available to a couple can, in some cases, insist in valleys or localities that are clearly distinct from one another even if they are generally included in a non- excessive kilometric radius.

With regard to the distance that can occur between the active nesting sites of the various pairs of Golden Eagle, it is noted that it varies according to the geographical areas taken into consideration, so that in the Alps area the distance can be even less than 3 kilometers while in many parts of Canada or Siberia the distance can go up considerably. On average in the Alps is 8-9 kilometers, to climb to about 20-22 on the Apennines.

With reference to the distance between the nests of the same pair, measurements are recorded from a few meters up to several kilometers (even cases of nests of the same pair located in valleys or different areas).

1. Hunting territory

Another factor of vital importance in the home range of a pair of Golden Eagle is the hunting territory divided into habitual and winter-occasional.

On the Alps and on the Apennines it is usually structured in 4 different typologies: altitude meadows, dismal inclined slopes or weakly covered with shrubs or sparse woods, softer slopes, lower territories; it must be said that in the Alps the territories are almost always more bumpy and articulated than those of the Apennines. More generally, the territory, as mentioned, is divided into areas usually used for hunting and marginal areas used occasionally or in particular periods of the year. It happens that during the winter, following the snow cover of the highest altitudes and the consequent descent further downstream of the prey, the Eagles move their hunting territory further down and in the slopes with better exposure. As we know, the hunting territory of a couple can partly be exploited by a neighboring couple without there being any conflict between the two couples; in fact this area of the home range is not actively defended as is the territory of nesting.

The indicative size of the main hunting areas of two pairs of Golden Eagle, analytically calculated by me (Scottish highlands, Swedish taiga), were respectively 60 and 75 km 2 .

From what has been observed so far appears, in its various implications, the importance assumed by the territorial delimitation of the various pairs of Aquila; it is entrusted not only to direct signals already illustrated above, as a report of green fronds to the nests and ostentation of intimidating beatings, also to visual or "fanatic" signs; to this are added the singing warnings that, audible even at a considerable distance, distrust any intruders from crossing the limits of the territory already occupied.

The perfect knowledge of the territory is essential for the survival of a couple of Golden Eagle and for reproductive success. In fact it is of fundamental importance for the couple to be aware of the ideal routes to approach the prey, the "secret" passages, the best perches, the winter shelters, and so on. In an unknown area the chances of survival are reduced. In fact, the non- knowledge of the territory is one of the causes that favors the mortality of young erratic people.

As we have seen, in our days, when the Golden Eagle is housed in overly anthropized countries, it lives and breeds in the mountains, in places that are relatively less accessible, after having abandoned the plains and hills. Even today, as in the past, when the human population is scarce, the Eagles, as we know, are also pushing in the hills or even towards the plains (Mongolia,

Russia, Finland, Sweden, Canada, etc.) often nesting on big trees and hunting in the wide plains or between the clearings that alternate with the woods. In the uninhabited areas, sometimes the Eagles do not fear man so much that they are able to approach them even a few meters (personal observation); this is especially true if the animals have not suffered negative traumatic experiences with men. Gensbol (1992) asserts that if the Golden Eagle adapts itself more and more to the modern world, it may perhaps return to nest even near the cultivated plains or in any case in close contact with the man, assuming that the most confident individuals are not killed. . Unfortunately, in many circumstances it is always nature that succumbs and, in this particular case, it is the Aquila that, if it wants to survive, must bow to the claims of territorial domination of man!

1. The establishment of a new couple in a territory

The resettlement of a new couple in an area previously occupied by the Eagles is an event of extreme interest, both from a naturalistic and protectionist point of view. In general, in the abandoned territory the old nests left by the previous couple remain, and the new one does not scruple in reactivating them and establishing their possession. However, in these cases it is not uncommon to build new nests, especially if the old ones are extremely crumbling or completely damaged. In recent years, the resettlement in old abandoned places, as regards the Italian territory, has been particularly evident in almost the entire Alpine arc, while it is still marginal in the Apennine territory.

Another case that can obviously occur is that of the establishment of a couple of Golden Eagle in a new territory, never used in the past by members of the species. This eventuality can be more easily realized in the territories not anthropized or in any case more tranquil where the Golden Eagle can expand freely having to calculate only the trophic and reproductive potentials (presence of suitable places where to place the nest, etc.) and certainly not the impediments and human disorders. Obviously the due exceptions are valid.

1. Places abandoned by the Eagles

It is sad to visit the old breeding sites now abandoned by the Eagles. Both direct and indirect human persecutions have almost always been the cause of such abandonments. In recent years, thanks to the protection of many environments and especially the absolute ban on hunting, the pairs of Eagles, as we have seen, are re-colonizing old territories that were once theirs. In most Alpine territories, the species has reached its maximum density. However, the new seasonal births are barely able to cover the losses, so much so that at present in most of the Western Palearctic, the populations of the Eagles remain stable, with no appreciable growth. It must be said that the abandoned nests in the course of the years try to get rid of it completely even if the bulk of the woody mass can guarantee its hold even for decades. In fact, abandoned nests have been observed for a long time in a good state of conservation. However, the breakup is also related to the location on the wall (precarious position, stable, or on tree, etc.), from the

woody consistency (in certain places with little arboreal vegetation, the nests are always inconspicuous) and above all from the locality geographical (in the northern areas the continuous bad weather favors the disintegration with respect to southern locations). Sometimes abandoned nests can be used by other species (peregrine falcon, eagle owl, etc.).

The current and past presence of real eagle pairs in a central Apennine location was as follows:

Area studied: 2200 km 2

N ° current pairs: 8

N ° pairs previously: 14 Percentage reduction: 43% approx.

Reproductive cycle

1. Premise

The reproductive cycle is one of the most delicate phases for animals, especially for those species that need prolonged time. The birds have among other things the need to incubate the eggs outdoors, eggs subject to the direct attack of predators and to the variability of the climate.

Like all great birds of prey, the Golden Eagle has a long reproductive cycle that engages it for many months a year; in fact it lasts for more than 4 months, without considering that the invading young person depends on the parents until the whole following winter or at least until the autumn; it remains sometimes with the parents even longer as happens in the case that adults do not reproduce again in the spring. It is not rare to record years of reproductive "rest" by a couple.

The Golden Eagle is, as we know, monogamous as a couple remains united throughout life, so that the bond is interrupted only by the death of one of the two partners. However, rare cases of females expelled from others are known (Love & Watson, 1990). When an 'Eagle is suddenly alone, it does not take much time for a new individual, devoid of his own stable territory, to establish a new relationship as a couple. Newton (1979) asserts that the link to the nesting site could be correlated with the good characteristics of the site itself. In general the first nesting takes place at the minimum age of 4-5 years when as we have seen the bird of prey has acquired the adult plumage. Sometimes it is possible to see individuals coupled with immature plumage; this is an uncommon event, even if not completely obsolete; in the Grisons on 50 pairs observed between 1978 and 1981 only 4 times were observed of couples with subaddressed females (Gensbol, 1992). Where the species is persecuted, couples with immature are not so rare (Chiavetta, in Gensbol, 1992 - personal observations). One year out of eight couples followed by me in three of them the females were subadult. In that same year two of these females, despite, as said, showed an evident plumage from immature (max.3

/ 4 years), they reproduced regularly bringing a young man to the fly. On another occasion a female about 2-3 years of age did the same. It should also be added that sometimes the subadultal plumage is not a certain guarantee of the subject's age; in fact, the anomalies of the color of the plumage, can lead us to the error (on one occasion I observed a female of 6-7 years still present evident youthful white "spots"). In fact, as aforesaid, there may be a certain discrepancy between the actual age of the subject and the condition of the plumage. Brown (1976a in Fasce & Fasce, 1984), asserts that in the context of a territory considered, if the presence of couples constituted by an adult and an immature person is low, it is in the fullness of normality, while, vice versa, if such unequal couples are numerous, then it means a high mortality of adults that reflects a substantial instability of the population.

The Golden Eagle confirms the reproductive characteristics of most raptors: solitary couples within a defended territory. The protection of one's own territory is attenuated in the marginal hunting areas. The male tends to

perform most of the hunting, while the female hatches, takes care of the young and feeds them. Parental care, last well beyond the flight, until the young disperse.

The Golden Eagle and some other birds of prey have reproductive populations among the most immutable of all birds (Newton, 1991) (not considering the negative action of man who can subvert any natural order of things).

Quantity and reproductive success are governed by both trophic availability and nesting sites. In places where nesting sites are scarce, the presence of one species can influence the quantity and distribution of another. The Golden Eagle on a rock face has priority over the peregrine falcon and this on the kestrel, but it is unlikely to dislodge the falcon if it has previously been installed in L'Aquila.

The abundance of prey necessary for the start and development of reproduction should not be recorded only during the spring breeding but at least since the beginning of winter (Klaesson, 1985). A winter of "lean" not from energies necessary for reproduction (Klaesson, 1985). This is particularly true for the northern territories (Scandinavia, Siberia, Canada, etc.).

1. The wedding parades

Starting from December-January, the Eagles perform with increasing vigor in spectacular wedding parades that have the important function of strengthening the bond of the couple. In the case that in the previous year the couple did not reproduce, the wedding flights may have already since September (however in different circumstances I observed intense bridal parades already in the autumn period by couples who a few months before had reproduced with success).

The most typical exhibition concerns the so-called "festooned flight" that, as mentioned several times, consists of a series of almost candle-like ascents with dry wing strokes, followed by beaten with closed or semi-enclosed wings that describe in the complex a sinusoidal trajectory. This type of flight, also practiced by other birds of prey, is not only performed on the occasion of the nuptial parades, but also appears when it is a question of establishing territoriality rights both with regard to conspecifics and with other species, including humans. Generally it shows a linear development, but sometimes it manifests itself with sudden directional changes.

The festooned flight is not the only expression of the parades, since it often coexists with other aerial evolutions. For example, the Eagles perform cross trajectories, then describe circles, often with a double sense of rotation; another spectacular effect is that which is given by the rapid flight of the two Eagles that are taken by the claws, while a specimen is turned upside down. At this performance that seems to be the expression of a feigned struggle, the young participant occasionally, as I have often observed. Probably the feigned struggles could represent a ritualization of the combat with intentions inten- ded to increase the bond of torque. Sometimes I noticed the Eagles cleaning each other (alloprening) , or passing from one to another a small prey or an unidentified "object".

To these spectacular parades are added the couplings that happen several times, some even even hatching started, probably to raise the harmony of the couple. The copula is rather simple and short-lived. The male gently positions

itself on the female which raises the tail to allow contact with the cloaches. The male, in order to maintain himself in this unstable equilibrium, from time to time widens the wings irregularly. After a few seconds, it moves a few meters away and often settles. It should be emphasized that couplings often take place near the nest. Personally I have observed, as mentioned, also several couplings during the hatching; this seems to be aimed at further strengthening the couple bond. In fact, couples always copulate beyond what is necessary for fertilization. Even in some species of birds of prey up to 400-600 times! (Village, 1991). For non-monogamous species such attitudes are probably due not only to the strengthening of the couple's bonds but also to the impediment that other males fertilize the eggs (Village, 1991).

When the couple has decided to reproduce, the young person energetically moves away from the month of March, sometimes since January; the exclusion is carried out mainly by repeated, decidedly beaten on the young, especially by the male (however, as mentioned, sometimes the young for a certain period may remain near the home range of the parents).

1. The nest

In the nesting territory, as we have just seen, there are usually 2-5 nests; they are used alternatively over the years, even if it happens that the couple often favors one or two nests that he uses more frequently or even for several years in a row. There are obviously cases that are outside the norm; one of these, object of personal observation, is that concerning a place where I have found that on two / three large walls not far from each other within a very engraved valley there are 10 nests, of which 2-4 are used in rotation in the last years. In certain circumstances, as mentioned, (lack of alternative sites, disturbed alternative sites, etc.) an Eagle can use the same nest for many years in a row.

Sometimes it may happen that despite a couple of Golden Eagle owning different nests in their area, decide to build a new one for emergency or for reasons not always known (very rare event). It happened to observe a couple nesting in a grassy ledge with very little wood material brought in a short time, even if in the area there were 9 nests available. In another case a couple nested on a ledge without material even though it had three nests at its disposal. Exceptionally, the Aquila can readjust and reprocess nests of other species; eg Ruio (1992) documents a case in Sardinia of using a wall buzzard nest.

About the activation of several nests within the same couple of Golden Eagle writes Murgia (1993): ".. Because this operation requires a huge investment of time and energy on the part of the bird, it is believed that the return of this effort can be identified in the importance that such constructions assume as indicators of the presence of an occupied territory " .

The nests are therefore re-used year after year, even if in the meantime replacements of one or both individuals of the couple occur. The supply of material transported with the legs and sometimes also with the beak, takes place long before nesting (since the autumn-winter period) and is directed not only towards the chosen nest but also towards others. The supply of material to the nest, even after the beginning of the hatching, seems to connect, as we have said before, to a claim of possession and control of the territory, against any conspecifics or probable predators. The green fronds are also useful for refreshing the nest, to repair prey not consumed immediately by

necrophagous insects and flies and to soften the litter. Some authors assert that the green foliage also has the purpose of better camouflaging the nest; this is particularly true for those birds of prey that nest in the forest environment (astore, sparviero, etc.).

Among the material brought, dry branches of considerable size prevail, collected on the ground or even removed from shrubs or trees. In addition to this larger material, the Eagles also use smaller branches and green foliage of both hardwood and coniferous trees (larch, Scots pine, mountain pine, Swiss pine, spruce, white fir, oak, beech, hornbeam, birch, hazel, maple , etc.). The contribution of green or dry material continues even if the reproduction for that year has failed or not started at all. The branches can be collected directly on the ground, while sometimes I have watched the Eagle settle on a tree and swing with energy until it causes the chosen branch to break. Often times it manages to break it directly with the force of the impact. Summarizing the Eagles collect the branches as follows:

• On the ground, simply collecting them
• By forcibly tearing them away (fresh or dried) from plants
• With insistence (swaying on the plants) to break them.

The nest in the outer parts is rough, with large intertwined branches, while the central bedding, slightly concave, is softer, more refined and frequently renewed. The material is carried both by the male and the female, even if this seems more active in the work of arranging the branches inside the nest. If a nest has been set up recently it will hardly be very voluminous while the nests reused year after year reach considerable dimensions, up to a thickness and an average width of over 2 meters.

In the Swedish taiga, tree nests have been found with a thickness of over 4 meters and a weight of one tonne (Klaesson, 1985). Also Love & Watson (1990) report cases of old nests on a tree almost five meters high. In winter with the strong wind and the snow load a nest of this size or the tree itself, can also collapse (Love & Watson, 1990). In the poor areas of arboreal vegetation (northern tundra and steppes of the East) nests are often not very voluminous. About the bulk of the Ellis nests (1986 in Watson, 1997) describes one, in the state of Montana, 6 meters high placed on a basalt column, while Gordon (1955) in the Scottish Higlands records the case of a nest of 5 meters on a Scotland pine. However, the cases mentioned are exceptions, as the typical dimensions are typically 0.5 / 1m high with a diameter of 1-1.5 m, whose volume is approximately 0.9-1.8 square meters (Watson, 1997). Where the woody material is scarce, the Eagles can also make large tufts of grass. Sometimes it happens to observe nests that give the impression of being almost suspended (small ledges, limited protrusions, located on bushes clinging to the rock, etc.); obviously the most precarious nests are subject to greater wear. If the nest is built on an oblique substrate (eg ledge), the Eagle obtains the plan, filling the differences with the branches.

Another factor that influences the choice of nests is the climate. Excessive cold can be a problem, as the abundance of snow can cause the abandonment of eggs (Watson, 1997 - personal observation). Problems also with the direct and continuous insolation that can lead to the death of the chicks. From these brief considerations it should be noted that the orientation of the nests contributes to countering the negative factors, factors that

change depending on the geographical location of the reproductive site (Southern or Northern Europe, Alaska, etc.). In Scotland Watson (1997) analyzed 407 nests and obtained very interesting data.

In Norway and Sweden with nests placed at altitudes of 500/600 m subject to inclement weather, southern exposures strongly prevail (Tjernberg, 1983 - Bergo 1984 in Watson, 1997). In southern Europe, the high altitude of breeding sites in the Alps and Pyrenees (1500/1800 m) favors southern exposure (Watson, 1997), while in Spain, Italy (Apennines), Sicily and the former Yugoslavia, with prevalent altitudes of the nests of 600/900 m southern exposure is generally avoided. Therefore where the heat is excessive as well as the insolation, there is a clear predominance of the north exposures. This same typology is also registered in North America (Watson, 1997). For example, in Alaska, with the tendentially cold climate, the orientation is mainly in the south, while in the state of Utah, usually in a warm climate, the nests are in the north (Watson, 1997).

The need to protect oneself against potential predators, mainly carnivorous mammals and humans, is probably the most important factor influencing the choice of the reproductive site of a pair of Golden Eagle. Man-made structures, such as nests set up on electric pylons, are rarely used by raptors (Watson, 1997).

The breeding biotope in the Alps ranges between 1500 and 1800 m, with extreme peaks of about 750 and 2350 m, while the average altitude is about 1680 m (Fasce & Fasce, 1992). A nest at 2650 m is located in the Gran Paradiso National Park but has not been used since the late '50s (Framarin, 1986). On the Apennines, on the other hand, it ranges between 250 and 1500 m. (Borlenghi & Corsetti, in press). The average altitude of 42 nests analyzed by me in the central Apennines was about 1170 m. In Sardinia the altitudinal range oscillates between 180 and 1200 m (Fasce & Fasce, 1992), while in Sicily between 910 and 1980 m (Massa et al. , 1984 in Fasce & Fasce, 1984). It is of primary importance that the nests are well protected against atmospheric agents and excessive insolation. In most cases, as mentioned, the nest is on rock, while it is rarely on tree. In continental Europe 10% of the pairs of real eagle builds one on this structure (Watson, 1997). In the Alpine arc 12 nests are known on tree, all on conifer (Fasce & Fasce, 1992); in the rest of Italy there are only two other certain cases in Sardinia (Murgia, 1993) and 1 doubt in the Casentino (nest no longer in existence). In Sicily, in addition, on Etna there are some cases of tree nesting (De Luca, Mannino & Pantò, 1990 - Ciaccio, 1991). As mentioned earlier in the Swedish territories the trees that host the Golden Eagle's nest have an average 300 years of life and in any case trees under 150/200 years are rarely colonized (Klaesson, 1985 - Tjernberg, 1983a). In fact, in those places it takes at least

2 centuries for the plant to become sufficiently robust to support such impressive structures (Klaesson, 1985 - see also the excellent studies of the aforementioned Tjernberg, 1983a). Same situation I have verified in Finland. However, if we analyze the territories in particular, it may happen that the nest on the tree becomes the main rule; examples are represented by Sweden, Finland and former Czechoslovakia. In Estonia, even, only tree nests exist (Watson, 1997).

A nest on rock has obviously a better seal over time than on a tree. Generally, on the central Apennines, the nest is built in the upper or middle thirds of the walls, with a clear predominance of the upper ones; the lower third is used only when the inaccessibility from below is completely evident.

In the western Alps they can be located a few meters from the base of the wall almost to the top of it (Fasce & Fasce, 1992). In Scotland, I happened to observe several "active" Golden eagle active nests, the same in Poland. Sometimes you can go to nests placed on rocky walls of modest extensions (eg in Scotland of only 40 m) to those that instead fit on large rocky structures (over 400 m in Norway) (Watson, 1997). In the Italian territory, the limited presence of nesting sites on trees (in the Western Alps only 2% - Fasce & Fasce, 1992), can be attributed not only to the considerable presence of rocky walls, probably also due to the fact that in a warm climate and sunny as that of the peninsula, the nest on tree hardly offers guarantees against excessive heating of the sun's rays (Fasce & Fasce, 1992). The pairs usually followed by me have the main hunting territories above the nests in the high sense. As already pointed out, in the portion of the Swedish taiga analyzed by me, where a couple of Golden Eagle insisted, I did not verify this occurrence due to the slightly accentuated orography of that territory. Conversely, in the Sarek National Park (Northern Sweden), the Eagles have their nests on rocky walls and most of the hunting territory is above these nests.

In some very rare exceptions, the Golden Eagle can also activate a nest on the ground (Watson, 1997). In fact Newton (in Watson, 1997) quotes a case in the Hebrides where for many years a couple used a nest set up on the ground, certainly because the place was quiet and had no terrestrial predators. In other cases, always very rare, L'Aquila, as already mentioned, can use artificial supports created by man. For example in Scotland on a tree or in North America on electric pylons (Watson, 1997).

On several occasions I have been able to observe, during the nesting period, a golden eagle snatch a large branch from a bush, twirl for a long time with the branch between the legs (even in front of the nests) and then let it fall suddenly into the empty for no apparent reason.

On 32 reported to the nest cataloged (dry and green branches), 19 times was by the female and 13 by the male (3 pairs). This obviously does not prove that females are always bringing more material to the nest.

The different types of nests located within rocky walls can be, in broad terms, divided into closed and open. Those closed are represented by the cavity and the niche, while those open from the terrace and the ledge. While the former guarantee full protection for the nest, the latter often lack it. More specifically, following the definitions of Torbien & Cibien (1991), we will have:

• The cavity is generally large and allows the contribution of numerous material to the nest as well as facilitating the movements of the eagle.
• The niche instead is a very narrow cavity occupied almost entirely by the branch of the nest.
• The terrace is a fairly spacious rocky floor that is highlighted by an overhanging wall.
• The ledge is a sort of horizontal or slightly oblique step that cuts the wall.

In addition to these basic types, it is worth mentioning that there are cases of nests placed in mixed positions or not rigidly defined according to a precise scheme (for example "nested" nests in a rock bottleneck like a funnel or nests placed part on a rocky ledge and part on the trunk of a plant emerging from the rocks).

In general there seems to be a preference for nests protected at least in part by the weather. In fact, the niche and the cavity seem to better maintain heat dispersion, especially during the hatching (as well as protecting from the elements). Night-time analysis with infrared rays (personal experience) clearly highlighted this physical process. Probably the eagles that nest in niches and small cavities are able to better maintain the heat compared to those that hatch in more open nests (for example on a tree or on an uncovered terrace). Out of 42 nests (between active and abandoned) analyzed by me in various locations of the central Apennines, the following data emerged: Niche 8, Cengia 4, Terrazzino 12, Cavity 9, Mixed 6, Other 3. The protection from the weather was found the following: protected nests 21, partially protected 13, unprotected 8. The average altitude, 1170.47 (see table below).

As we have seen, the Golden Eagle's entry phase to the nests has a frequency that is related to the seasonal period; it is maximum during the brooding and the breeding of the pulli, it is minimal during the August- December period. But, already from the end of autumn or from the first winter weeks, the raptor enriches some nests with material both to restructure them and to confirm their possession. In fact, during the pre-breeding period, Aquila frequents more nests, although, of course, it will be only one that will be chosen.

In some circumstances it happens that the eagles frequent assiduously a preferential nest so much to make to suppose in advance the choice of the site for that year.

As we have seen, entry to the nests before laying has been carried out since the winter months, but not always additional material (dry or fresh branches) is added. In fact, I have observed, in all the pairs followed, many "discharged" re-entries in the various nests; from the data collected (76 comeback discharges compared to 70 loads) it seems to me that the re- entries without material are greater than the others (non-generalizable consideration to be verified further).

The earliest date after the breeding season (April-August) in which I observed consistent re-entry to the nests with woody material is that of October 22nd.

1. The spawning

In Europe, depending on the area, egg laying takes place from the middle of March to the beginning of May. It should be added that there are no noticeable variations (maximum 15-20 days) from the aforementioned dates, even with different latitudes and climates. A pair that followed in central- northern Finland normally spawned around the first ten days of April. However, at times there may be differences in the beginning of hatching even 10-15 days between pairs of Eagles allocated in two neighboring territories (personal observation). The couples usually followed by me lay between 15/20 March and early April.

In the period before the deposition, the female of the Golden Eagle, as in other raptors, increases in weight. These reserves serve to allow deposition and to guarantee the female an emergency food supply in case of food shortages. In this way the female can constantly stand in the nest, even if the male at that moment is in difficulty in procuring food for example due to adverse weather. In addition to adding weight, the female develops in the

belly a "hatching spot" (belly area, with reduced plumage if necessary, particularly rich in blood vessels suitable for effectively transferring heat to the eggs).

Generally, 2 eggs are laid, at intervals of 3-5 days, rarely 1 or 3, while a deposition of 4 eggs falls within the exceptionality. Some authors point out the hypothesis, for the truth not too much accredited, according to which the deposition of 2 eggs has the purpose to guarantee that at least one is successful. In general, the earliest depositions recorded so far are those that took place in early March, with subsequent involution in the first ten days of July; the later ones occurred at the end of April-beginning of May with a subsequent flight around the second fortnight of August. Replacement broods have also been reported during the initial phase of the hatching, but this is part of the exceptionality.

The deposition of the egg by the female takes place in a completely "traditional" way similar to other birds. On one occasion I observed that the female waited more than an hour before covering the eggs, while in another she placed herself in a brooding position after a few minutes.

1. The eggs

Generally 2, rarely 1 or 3, laid at 3-4 days intervals. The specific data are as follows:

Shape: roundish.

Coloration : opaque, whitish sometimes present brown, red-brown and pale gray speckles. There may be variations in color between the eggs of the same brood (Glutz et al. , 1971). The spots are generally small and can be abundant or absent. The amount of stains can vary in the eggs of the same brood so that sometimes one of the two is not spotted (Harrison, 1988 - personal observation).

Measurement: 76.7 x 59.4 mm (Harrison, 1988); Glutz et al. (1971, in Fasce & Fasce, 1992), reported measures of 76.4 x 58 as an average of 35 eggs from the Swiss and Bavarian Alps. Cramp & Simmons (1980) report measures ranging from 68-89 x 51-66 mm. Love & Watson (1990) on a sample of 100 eggs from Scottish Eagles found measures ranging from 70 to 89 mm in length and from 51 to 66 mm in width. The dimensions of a third egg of a brood I had directly detected were 75 x 55 mm.

Weight: ranges between 130 to 160 gr. with variations between 113.4 and

176.6 (Grobbels, Kirchner & Mobert, 1936 in Glutz et al. , 1971). Typically, these measures are equivalent to about 3% of the female's weight (Love & Watson, 1990).

On 12 eggs observed directly I have almost always found a difference in maculation between them. In two circumstances (two couples) I detected the deposition of three eggs (rare event).

The eggs of the Eagles, as well as those of the other birds of prey, are larger than the other birds, in relation to the body size (Olsen, 1991). One of the probable reasons is that the birds of prey grow very rapidly and leave the nest almost completely formed. In the Golden Eagle in five weeks the chicken increases its weight by 32 times; a larger egg contains a larger chick which then leaves the lead. However, among the birds of prey, the larger species tend to have smaller eggs in proportion. In the golden eagle each egg that lays represents about 3% of the female body weight (Olsen, 1991).

In contrast, the small female of the American kestrel (Falco sparvierus) lays eggs each of which represents 11% of her body weight (Olsen, 1991). Eggs of the same brood generally have the same size and weight. However in the Golden Eagle as in many other birds of prey, sometimes the second egg is smaller than the first.

Eggs abandoned by the eagles can be preyed by corvids, in particular by the imperial crow.

Sometimes one or both brood eggs may not hatch at all (unfertilized-and, damaged-and, cooled-e eggs, etc.).

1. The hatching

Egg incubation is a very delicate phase that every bird tries to carry out in the best possible way. Larger species, such as the Vultures, have an incubation of more than 50 days, and to allow the young man to fly in the favorable summer months, they make the deposition in the middle of winter (Bearded Vulture, Griffon, etc.). It so happens that the first phase of the brooding can be made more difficult by the inclemency of time. Any long absences from the nest can compromise reproduction.

The Golden Eagle, for its part, needs 43-45 days (in the northern territories it seems that the incubation is shorter than a few days, so in fact I happened to observe in Sweden and Northern Finland) a middle ground between the shorter raptors (Falconiformes) and slower raptors (vultures). The hatching is almost exclusively due to the female, as the male replaces it only 1-2 times a day (change-over) and for a short period (max 2 hours) (possible individual variations of the times and ways of brooding by the male in relation to the localities and to the single couples - Chiavetta, 1981); the nocturnal hatching is exclusively for the female (personal observation that can not be generalized). However, the two members of the couple do not show a similar attitude in the incubation stage of the eggs. In fact, the female during the brooding positions herself with the body as much as possible lowered and extended while maintaining the same position for several hours in a row without exposing moments of restlessness or spasms; during the day it turns the eggs several times in order to heat them evenly. The male, on the contrary, when he gives the change to the female does not always crouch properly, changes the attitude and when the female returns to the nest to give him the change is often found already standing on the edge of the nest and, just the female lands, flies away. Sometimes I even noticed that the male, sighting the female in return flight, went away, without waiting for the landing of the female. The behavior of the female is different; when the male gives her the change, she is almost reluctant to abandon the eggs, so much so that she lingers a while before getting up. All these observations are supported by what is reported by Fasce & Fasce (1984). The change in the hatching is necessary for the female both to feed herself with the prey previously captured by the male, and to carry out the necessary motion to the tonification of the musculature. It is however not excluded that sometimes it is the female herself who makes attempts to hunt, of which I have had personal testimony when I was given the opportunity to observe a female who, just out of the nest, prey a squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) .

If one of the partners after the spawning is suddenly missing, the survivor, even if the male can, for a certain period of time, continue brooding.

MacNally (1977) reports a case of a male who continued to incubate the eggs for several days after their partner had been killed.

The period prior to the laying of the eggs and subsequently that of the breeding of the young, is characterized by an evident presence of the Eagles. On the contrary, the incubation of the eggs is much quieter and for many hours in a row the most absolute calm reigns in the nest. In the course of 8 years, referring to two pairs of the central Apennines, the average minimum duration of the daily exchange rates is 15.66 minutes, while the maximum one is 1.75 hours (extremes: 0.12 hours minimum, max 2.44 h).

However, it may happen that, especially in the early days of brooding, and with good weather conditions, both partners leave the nest unattended to be absent for more than an hour. Personally I recorded an absence of almost 3 hours (April 12, Central Apennines) on a mild day, without the eggs having suffered any damage, so that in the middle of May they came regularly to hatching, as reported in the following table. Many times I have also observed the female during the hatching to leave the nest to make a wide scout of a few minutes and then come back and position again in hatching. Probably these are simple flights to stretch the muscles and to ease the fatigue of the hatching. In almost all circumstances, the weather was mild and peaceful. Sometimes I watched the hatching Eagle retreat for a few minutes to the bottom of the nest (cavity) protected from direct sunlight and then come back regularly to hatching.

As for the feeding of the couple during the brooding, it is customary that the male, caught a prey, puts it on a perch not far from the nest so that the female can feed without putting the brood at risk (personal observation - Chiavetta, 1981) . On one occasion I observed the male carrying a small prey on the edge of the nest and leaving. After a few minutes the female rose from the brooding position and fed for about 20 minutes, then resumed her brooding position. Sometimes the female, coming out of the nest, can herself try to catch a prey to feed herself.

1. The breeding

As we have already noted, around mid-May the eggs hatch after 43-45 days of brooding, but not simultaneously because their deposition occurs with 3-5 days of interval. More generally, the hatching of the eggs, depending on the area, can fluctuate between the last fortnight of April and the end of May, in the extreme north, even a few days later. At the end of the incubation, the chick in the egg issues calls to warn the female that the hatching is imminent (Village, 1991). The breakage of the shell is very laborious so that the chick has to work for 1-2 days, helped by the special "egg-tooth" placed on the tip of the beak (Village, 1991). At this critical moment the female watches carefully in the nest and it is rare that she goes away at this stage; if he has to feed himself he can also do it in the nest itself. Like the other birds of prey, the Golden Eagle chicks are nidicolous.

The newborn chicks are covered with a white and soft white quilt; you have to wait a fortnight before the feathers start to appear. After a week, the second duvet is developed which is thicker, velvety, woolly and still whitish or slightly pinkish. The remiges and the helms are the feathers that appear first; the last ones, after about 60-70 days, are those of the head, of the chin and of the trousers. Just born a pullus weighs an average of one hundred grams.

During the first 15 days of life, the female carefully covers the chickens to protect them from the elements and also from excessive insolation that could dehydrate them. During this period it rarely leaves the nest and when it does so it is for a very short time. In this phase the female is positioned in a position similar to that of the brooding, but slightly raised and often changing position. At the time of the meal it moves slightly and with extreme delicacy provides to take the pulli (the female often feeds alternately the two pulli).

Sometimes 2 chicks are born, but in most cases there is only one that will survive (80% of cases in Europe - Chiavetta, 1981, 60-70% in other areas). The death of one of the two chickens is to be attributed to the older brother who irreversibly debilitates it with continuous pecking (Cain and Abel syndrome, also called "cainism") or to the scarcity of prey hunted by the parents who feed the stronger first. of the two chicks; "cainism" is more frequent when there is a considerable difference in size between the two, as occurs in the case that the first born is a female and the second a male. It should be borne in mind that, regardless of the difference in sex, there is a difference in age between the chicks, because, as we have just mentioned, the eggs hatch with 3-5 days difference (asynchronous hatching). Therefore, if the first-born is a female and the second a male, a double handicap is created for the male since, due to the larger size of the female, the effect due to the older age is added. In the case of food shortages in fact, the first born tries to appropriate most of the available food and, not completely satisfied, becomes particularly aggressive towards the brother. However, if the second son manages to overcome the critical period of the first 20-30 days of life, he increases his chances of survival. However, it is not rare cases that the second son dies even after more than 30 days of life (personal observation). As proof of the impact of the lack of food on "cainism" (Newton, 1979), the Eagles manage to bring 2 eaglets into the flies, in some cases even 3 (eg in Scotland, see below). According to some authors, however, it seems that fratricidal struggles can occur even in the presence of abundant food (Chiavetta, 1981). One could also hypothesize, perhaps absurdly, that the deposition of two eggs takes place so that the second egg, which in the course of time has become a chicken, is transformed into a sacrificial victim, immolated on the altar of "cainism". Based on my direct observations, I have never seen the dead chicken being used as a food source (observation that can not be generalized). It is interesting to note that the phenomenon of cainism, in a more or less accentuated form, occurs in all subspecies of the Golden Eagle, including that of Japan (Aquila chrysaetos japonica) or of North America (Aquila chrysaetos canadensis) . However, it is my opinion that the aggression of the greater bird towards the brother is a genetically codified practice fruit of the evolutionary process; in other words, the chicken instinctively always attacks the brother regardless of the availability of food or under the influence of other factors. The lack of food will then favor the greater because it is able to come forward with greater vigor towards the mother who feeds it, but certainly does not affect, at least mainly, on its attacks (I observed numerous aggressions even after the major chicken had been abundantly fed). If then as we have seen the second son for a whole series of reasons goes beyond the critical phase, the growth of both will usually go ahead without problems, in fact, once the two brothers have been convoluted they will be very close and tied together. Probably the "cainism" of the first phase of life has evolved to determine the almost certain survival of at least one chicken. On one occasion I verified the death of the 2nd chicken

at a very advanced age: 52 days (Central Apennines). A truly amazing fact. In fact, the second son had overcome very difficult initial stages resisting the attacks of his brother, but unfortunately when it seemed that everything was proceeding for the best of sudden death came. The eagle was almost completely feathered, although smaller in size than the greater one; the actual cause of death was not ascertained. On another occasion, a pullo died at the age of 44 days (Polish Carpathians). The dead pulli in the nest especially if small are generally removed from the mother. As I said, I do not see that they are used as a food source, but the statement needs further verification. When such cruel competitions occur between the chicks, the mother does not intervene at all to curb the impetus but lovingly provides for nurturing both the contenders, even if the most aggressive will do the lion's share. On three pairs of Golden Eagle in the central Apennines, the average indicative life span of the 2nd poulet I calculated was 12.6 - 9.5 - 10.5 days respectively.

It must be remembered that in certain circumstances even both chickens can perish, above all due to lack of food. Gordon (1955, in Fasce & Fasce, 1992) asserts that in the past in Scotland there were not infrequent involi with 3 young people (currently the event is much rarer). There is also a case in the Valais (Praz & Fellay, 1974 in Fasce & Fasce, 1992) and in Spain in the Sierra de Càceres (Delibes & Calderon, 1977 in Fasce & Fasce, 1992). Chiavetta (1981) states that some couples have the tendency to almost always breed two chicks, while others alternate reproduction and others still do it every 3-4 years. In Finland, a couple that I often follow, in seven years has nested one year and one year ago.

When, as we have already observed, the female, provides to protect with the body the pulli, as well as to take them carefully during their first 15 days of life, is the male who is dedicated entirely to hunting to feed the eagles, as well as himself and the female. The protection of the female, exercised with the body and with the semi-open wings, is exercised not only if the weather is adverse (wind, rain, cold, etc.), but also when the direct sun beats on the pullo; in fact, still unable to thermoregulate independently, the chicken could die dehydrated. In fact there have been deaths of newly born chickens left unattended in the sun because the mother had been forced to leave the nest because it was strongly disturbed. The continuous control of the female during the first days of life of the nidiacei is also exercised for the protection from possible predators. As the days pass even the female begins to move away from the nest with increasing frequency to provide several times a day to properly feed the offspring so much that it can already be absent for many hours and sometimes even for half a day. However, if the weather is inclement, it often positions itself on the edge of the nest to protect and watch the chicks. During these visits the female also cleanses the nest from various remains or from leftovers of prey (bones, interior, locks of hair, feathers and feathers, etc.). The male is almost always limited to put the prey on the edge of the nest without bothering to feed the eagle; he is not able to do it with the due precautions because it is usual to offer the rare pieces of meat that are too big or badly presented. If during the first phase of breeding the female is missing, the chicken will hardly survive, despite the fact that the male is careful to supply the nest of all sorts of prey. There have been cases of dead starvation coughs while being surrounded by whole carcasses of prey, since the mother was missing, the male had not been able to take them properly. On one occasion in a Sicilian reproductive site, an immature male of the

Golden Eagle was observed, actively collaborating in the breeding of the chick having died the adult male of the couple. Thanks to this behavior the breeding was successful (Salvo, 1993). This observation is very interesting and certainly represents a rare event. The immature male was definitively bound with the adult female even if in the subsequent breeding the nesting did not go in port, probably due to the male's sexual immaturity (Salvo, 1993). However, if the male is missing in the last period of nesting with the nest in the nest at least 50-60 days, probably the breeding could be successful. Moreover, if the eaglet is big enough not to require direct protection from negative agents and is able to feed itself, it can obviously survive as long as the surviving parent is able to get food.

In its first days of life the eagle can not stand up, so he spends most of his time crouching and dozing off; however, it shakes from its torpor when it has to defecate, since - very careful not to dirty the nest - it turns to the outside and with an energetic sketch projects out the whitish and almost liquid dung, whose traces are visible around the nest or on the ground below. The 15-20 days chicken is already able to scrupulously clean the quilt or stretch with wings. Personally I have observed many times the eagle waking up after a long rest, stretch the limbs properly and then do "cleaning" with the beak in various parts of the body. When it is very small (first days), it is the mother who has to "scrape it". Many times I have observed the 15-20 days chicken remain completely indifferent both at the entrance of the mother in the nest and if the latter offered him some food as the chicken was probably not hungry. In most cases instead of the presence of the mother and especially in front of its food offerings, the little eagle always tried to raise at least slightly on the legs, but succeeding only partially. In addition, especially when the chicken is small, the mother in the nest moves with extreme caution as in a slow-motion television shot to avoid hurting the baby or children with the huge claws of which it is equipped.

From the field notes: "Today is a very hot day, even if we are still on May 16. In the nest of the Golden Eagle couple of Monte Maggiore the chickens are now 8-10 days and the female takes care of them with scrupulous attention. , 20 comes out of the nest and joins in the vault with the male who in the meantime had appeared on the apex of the front walls.Unbeaten both the view for about ten minutes, suddenly reappear on my vertical at close range so much that the naked eye I can discern between the legs of the male a large snake just predated.After a further vault with a quick and resolute slipped the two Eagles head towards the nest landing shortly on the edge.The male, left the prey, flies immediately away The female instead, after a couple of minutes, begins to feed the chickens ...... ". The above- mentioned notes describe the very spectacular case of the joint return to the nest of both partners of the couple; joint re-entries are carried out even before the deposition, sometimes without material. On another occasion instead a prey caught just before the male and left by the latter on a rocky spike, was collected by the female who took her to the nest where there was a chicken of 20-25 days.

As we have seen before, during the reproductive period we notice a particular measure of the Eagles in the phase of return to the nest; this happens in fact with the maximum circumspection, often using lateral trajectories that touch the rocks, in order to blend into the environment and escape the attention of potential enemies. The mimicry is also closely related to the breeding period: during the first hatching phase the re-entries are more

"carefree", while with the birth of the chicken the re-enters are generally more guarding and therefore more mimetic.

When they have 40-45 days of life, the eagles assume, as it were, the aspect of an adult: they are well-feathered and show off a great dynamism; now they try to feed themselves by awkwardly tearing shreds of meat from their prey, despite the fact that the mother is busy doing the trick (some times I have observed 30-35 day-olds trying to feed on their own). The fulfillment of this task has two variants: the mother gives the morsoni to the pullo as she rips them out of prey, other times, however, more rarely, as I personally observed, first ripping some small pieces of meat, puts them in front of him, then he starts to imitate. Especially when the chicken is full or hard to eat, it is not uncommon to see the mother eat something in the nest. Even the smallest bits of meat that the chicken does not swallow and drop at its feet are scrupulously collected by the mother to be returned to the chicken or eaten directly. It should be added that sometimes the feeding of the chicken can last even for an hour. In this period the eagles sporadically begin to beat their wings to develop the muscles. Another peculiarity of the eagle in the nest consists in its being particularly vociferous; he continually calls his parents, especially when they are flying near the nest and his call becomes more insistent when he is hungry. Sometimes it may happen that for the whole day the parents can not bring anything back to the nest, but in any case the eaglet will not remain fasting because it will almost certainly feed itself with some rest still present in the nest. In fact, under different circumstances I observed eagles left to "fast" for many hours or even for the whole day, eating occasionally with old prey deposited in the nest; this happens above all if the adverse time or other factor prevents or limits the hunting activity of the adults. If the eagle is not yet able to feed itself, it obviously provides the mother with the same system. Even in this period of development most of the day is spent by the chicken in total rest; it moves from time to time inside the nest and is repaired in the bottom of the cavity during the hottest hours. When the pulli are two and feed themselves with a prey carried by the parents, they can activate a certain competition between them. If hunger is a lot, the meal could be consumed with some agitation. Small disputes can also take place for other reasons. For example, once I looked at the greater chick to gain the only place in the shade present in the nest, not before having pushed the younger brother down firmly. On certain occasions the second child if well grown (> 40 days) can be very active in "come forward" when parents bring food to the nest. When it rains or beats the strong summer sun if in the nest there is a protected area at least in part the chicken, even if it is placed in a few weeks without delay.

At 60 days the chicken is completely feathered, with the exception of the head feathers, the undertail and the trousers. Already eats alone, even if exceptionally, the female can still take it, as I had occasion to see in a few circumstances. Even in this phase it can happen to observe the female who feeds inside the nest for a long time so much that on one occasion she did it for more than an hour. It is not uncommon to observe the chicken while carrying out the preening activity, which consists in inspecting the plumage through the beak to get rid of parasites, foreign bodies, and to order the feathers and feathers. The preening activity, as mentioned, also concerns adults who need to keep their plumage always tidy and clean for the purpose of flight efficiency. On many occasions I happened to observe the female flying from the nest to position a few tens of meters from it on a rock or other

suitable support. On one occasion he remained in this position for 4 hours; the only activities he exhibited were the cleaning of the plumage and the observations of the surrounding territory. Needless to say, I have often recorded the "disturbance" (mobbing) of other birds (kestrel, crow, raven, jay, chough and alpine chough, etc.).

The supply of food to the nest increases progressively from the first day of life of the chicken, up to the maximum around 6-8 weeks; then it decreases in the last weeks, until it ceases almost entirely in the last days of the stay of the chicken in the nest; this would serve some to reduce the weight of the eagle and make it more fit for flight, according to others to push the hungry young man to flee in search of prey. During the last period of stay at the nest you notice that when the parents bring some prey, the eagle sometimes seizes it with arrogance as to contend it to the parents and, in protecting the conquest, ruffles the feathers and spreads the wings. In contrast to what was asserted by some (obviously not absolutely), I must however point out that during my personal observations I noticed more than once that the contribution of prey to the nest lasted until the day before the attack of the eagle , although with a rather Spartan menu, consisting mainly of voles and lizards. On two occasions I even found that an eagle was fed up to two hours before the flight with two prey, a first reptile, a later vole. What is stated obviously does not exclude the fact that in most cases the eagles are not fed in the days near the fly (often parents put some prey out of the nest to entice the young man to wander). On many occasions I have noticed during the last days of the stay of the young in the nest numerous returns of the parents without bringing prey; perhaps they were attempts to stimulate it to fly away (the theory of lack of supply of prey in the last days before the flight must be confirmed with certainty). Pedrini (1987) asserts that the maximum peak food delivered to the nest per day occurs between the sixth and the eighth week with 2.6 prey, and then progressively decreases to 0.7 shortly before the roll, ie around the tenth week .

Around 70 days the eagle, ready for the flight, is almost completely developed and plucked from the classic livery of dark brown, almost black, with showy white spots in the tail and on the wings. For the sake of the record, let's remember that I happened to observe young people waddling with their white trousers. After the flight it will increase slightly and above all develop and tone the muscles.

As we have seen, the frequency with which the birds are fed in the nest varies according to the period considered; during the first 15-20 days the female protects them continuously with the body and feeds them on average 2-3 times a day with a certain regularity. When the surviving chick grows, but still does not know how to feed itself, the female moves further from the nest, to find the prey that are brought to the nest with an average frequency of 2-4 times a day with extremes of 1-5. Fasce & Fasce (1984) assert that in this phase the re-entry to the nest of the two parents with or without prey can reach up to 15 times a day. When the chicken is well developed and can feed itself, the prey brought to the nest oscillates from 1 to 3 (indicative data only). The last days of the presence of the chicken in the nest are generally characterized by a sharp decrease in food intake. When adults bring a prey to the nest they obviously have different attitudes depending on the age of the chicken. In fact, when the nest is not yet able to feed itself, the parent, if it is the mother, deposits the prey in the nest and does not fly away because it must feed the chicken. On the other hand, as is intuitive, if the eaglet is able

to feed on its own, with the exception of exceptions, as soon as the prey is left, the adult quickly leaves. In the case of the male not being able to feed the chicken at any stage of the growth of the nestling soles simply leave the prey and fly away.

Summary of the development of the Golden Eagle pullus

 

1. A few days after hatching, the white white quilt is covered; remains in a crouched attitude.
2. At fifteen days he has already completely replaced the first duvet with a second; gets up on your legs.
3. At thirty days it begins to be partially feathered and moves into the nest with ease. It emits the typical call. First clumsy attempts to tear the meat alone.
4. At forty days it is considerably darkened on the wings on part of the tail and on the rump; he moves frequently looking for the best positions. First attempts at autonomous feeding.
5. At fifty-fifty-five days he begins to feed himself with ease and already performs some flight exercises.
6. At sixty days the plating is complete, with the exception of that concerning the head, the throat, the trousers and part of the chest, where it is however in the process of definition. It often poses on the edge of the nest by calling the parents, sometimes eating alone, intensifying the flight exercises.
7. At seventy-seventy-five days it is completely feathered, and has therefore assumed the typical coloring of the young. Ready to fly, it is almost always kept on the edge of the nest and beats its wings frequently.
8. After seventy-seventy-five days it flies (63-83 / 85 days extreme dates)

1. The flightlessness and autonomous life of the young

In the days immediately preceding the invasion, the eagle is restless, often flaps its wings strongly, rising for a few moments from the ground. But I happened to observe eagles that until the day before the involution were kept fairly quiet with a few wing beats and did not leave at all to foresee the imminence of the event. From mid-July to the first ten days of August, depending on the areas and depending on the date of the beginning of the hatching, comes the great moment of the fly. A stronger beating of wings, a rush into the void, and here is that the eagle is suspended in the air in the intoxication of the flight, but it is - almost always - a flight of short duration that ends with a landing somewhat clumsy. During this period the eaglet likes to stay for long hours laid on a rock or other ledge, making the call repeatedly heard, especially if it sighted the parents from which it awaits some prey. Sometimes I happened to observe the eagle trying to return to the nest; on such a circumstance I witnessed the flight of a small eagle that, resting for a while on a grassy slope not far from the nest, returned to the latter after about ten minutes, to leave again after a brief pause. Sometimes it may happen to watch the newly invaded eagle move a few feet walking awkwardly and indecisively.

For those who diligently and apprehensively follow the fate of the young person throughout its development within the nest, the moment of the flight and the consequent abandonment of the nest is a source of moderate sadness. I remember in this regard the appropriate words of Ragni (1976): "... To see that abandoned nest, so familiar and known, that I have observed for hours and hours in all conditions of time, light, mood, I feel a bit 'of sadness, it's like the end of a good story. It 's true that another begins, perhaps more beautiful and adventurous, but I'll never see her, know her, follow her like this? And then, the most important thing, will be a happy ending like this? It is perhaps this uncertainty that makes that empty nest sad, more bleak  ".

As already mentioned, the flight is generally around 65-75 days after birth, although I have had the opportunity to register a flight to 80 days and another to 83/85 days of age. The flight of two eagles often takes place separately even several days apart; when this happens the 2nd chicken is more stimulated to leave the nest not only for the mature times but also for the flight of the brother. On one occasion, the second son of the couple settled in the Polish Tatra Mountains, flew in the days after his brother.

Once invaded the young will have to learn the techniques of flight and hunting, having as a model the parents, which will remain linked sometimes until the next breeding season. The dependence on the parents, as far as food is concerned, lasts until the autumn (September-October), while the mastery of the flight develops rapidly, so much so that a month after the fly already the eagle is master of the air indeed to be honest, after a few days, buy a good flight practice. In this period they are very vociferous, emitting the classic call even when flying in pursuit of parents. As well as being related to parents, they are also related to their territory of origin. Young men who are just involuntary deprived of their parents have practically no chance of survival. Chiavetta (1981) states that a young Eagle must perform an apprenticeship training at least 3-4 months, less for the specimens allocated in the northern regions of the planet. In fact, in Finland, it seemed to me to verify precisely this latter event.

From what I have been given to observe in the field I have found that in my area (Central Apennines) the removal of young people from the parents takes place almost always a few days before the beginning of the new nesting. Generally, expulsion can take place as early as December-January, but as far as I know directly, this happened only once. In fact, in one year I recorded a definitive departure from the month of December, but it must be said that on that occasion the adult female of the couple, that is the mother of the eagle, was replaced by a presumed death from a subadult subject (about 3 years). Perhaps this change has influenced the early departure (hypothesis to be verified). On two occasions I have instead seen the young man of the year removed a few hours before the deposition; in one case the young man was even removed in June because that year the couple did not nest. If in fact nesting does not happen the young person of the year can stay with the parents until the following year (also 15-18 months after the involo).

In general, it should be noted that the more young people are expelled early, for example in December, the higher the death rates of young people during the first year of life; on the other hand, young people who are removed in the spring are more likely to survive because they have more experience, are more mature and above all go towards the most favorable season for predation and other vital duties.

The overall average age of young people in four pairs followed by the writer (Central Apennines), was 76.6 days .. This average drops to 71.4 in the Polish / Slovakian territory (3 pairs of the Carpathians). In Finland on two pairs I could calculate an average of 69.4.

The breeding season of some couples that I actively follow in the central Apennines develops from the end of March-early April to the end of July-early August. The extreme data of the beginning brooding and of the young man's flight of the aforementioned couples are as follows:

beginning more early hatching: 12-16 March beginning more late hatching: 4 April

later invasion: 8 August early flight: 10/11 July

Sometimes the young person who has been removed may remain more or less in the surroundings or within the external limits of the couple's home range, so much so that the presence seems tolerated (to be verified further). On one occasion I recorded for several times the presence of the young man of the year near the nest where the mother was hatching. The female simply performed simple festoon flights without any direct attack.

If it is true that the young man after the flight is fed (but not fed!) For a certain period by the parents, it is also true that in the meantime the eagle must learn the hunting techniques through the following mediations:

Visual learning. The young man observes the parents during the hunting phase and treasures the teachings he draws from them. In order to observe the parents during the hunting phases, he sometimes lurks on a dominant roost, but often follows them at a very short distance, almost constantly issuing the call (kiok, kiok, kiok, kiok). It is not excluded that the somewhat intrusive behavior in these circumstances can hinder the success of the hunt, unless it is a fake performance by the parents.

Collaborative learning. The young participant, together with one, or even both parents, in the hunting phases, performing in the first attempts that initially register a high percentage of failures (over 80-90%). This is a very important phase because the young man begins to make direct experiences with the first rudiments of complex hunting techniques.

Direct attempts. The young man hunts alone and becomes a bit at the time master of hunting techniques in which he can excel after having tried numerous attempts. However only after a long time will he be able to hunt excellently.

In the course of my experience I have been able to directly follow an unsuccessful hunting attempt by a young man in collaboration with the male parent. Here is the succession of images: the adult male grazes the slopes of a valley while the young (female) follows it at a short distance, slightly higher; suddenly the male, flushed out from a low bush a hare (Lepus europaeus) that flies away lightning, suddenly turns leaving the prey to the young man who lowers his height to grasp it with his powerful claws; but the hare succeeds in suddenly reversing its direction and the young man's grip fails.

In another circumstance, certainly more happy for the young, this has succeeded in my eyes to achieve a brilliant success at the expense of a chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax) . While the young eagle is flying near a

ridge, she comes across two cracks suddenly emerging and, as is their custom, they hit the raptor. After numerous beatings, the young Aquila male suddenly turns to the right, anticipating the corvidae beaten for a few seconds; the chough arrives "long" and is thus below the eagle that promptly lowers its height and grabs with force.

It should also be remembered that sometimes the capture of domestic animals, such as hens, is a good training for the young, but it can not be concealed that this sometimes shows, as already mentioned, a certain aggressiveness towards the parents who supply it with food after the flight, impatiently seizing the prey that then defends by lowering the wings and ruffling the feathers.

Before being able to acquire sufficient basic experience in the art of hunting, the young person takes at least 4-5 months; in the Nordic regions, as mentioned, the young apprenticeship lasts less (personal observation - Chiavetta, 1981). As soon as he is removed from the parents from his birth territory, the young must appeal exclusively to his own forces, in new territories generally full of pitfalls and difficulties so that this phase is very delicate for the survival of the young Eagle, as the statistics from it turns out that most of the deaths occur during the first year of life with a percentage of over 60-70% (Brown & Watson, 1964 - Fasce & Fasce, 1984). The lack of knowledge of the territory, the limited hunting experience, in addition to the anthropic negative factors, are at the origin of most of these deaths.

What fate awaits the poor eagle now "orphaned"? Which part can you recite within the incessant dialectic of nature? Will it play a leading role? Well, the presence of isolated Eagles is very useful for the balance and development of the populations of the species because the restless "troubadours", intent on the continuous search for still free territories, are always ready to fill the voids that are created all inside of the couple. In this way the occupied territories remain active, unless external destructive factors such as the anthropization of the territory, widespread poaching, etc. occur. In this first phase the risks for the young of Aquila increase because of his rather "confidential" behavior towards the man, of which he can not even imagine the destructive potential. From the field notes: "Fly free eagle, your spirit is not bound to the archetypes of the complex and false human society.You will not find the alienation of work and money on your way.You will not need the many false necessities of which the man is a prisoner.The sky, the wind, the rocks will be your contour and you will live spontaneously according to the spirit of naturalness.A free flying eagle and I wish you a long life with the hope of never meeting the evil hand of man, the only able to seize your freedom.Man is a prisoner of his chains and inevitably envies and destroys everything he has now lost: Goodbye eagle, fly free and gentle! ".

The experience will nevertheless be a determining role for the formation of the eagle who will progress day after day in the practice of flight and hunting and will refine above all the ability to intuit and foil the pitfalls and deceptions that are connected to the struggle for survival.

The unripe immature and matured, and therefore not bound to a territory, wander in continuation also making remarkable moves, as is particularly the case in the Nordic countries. For example, specimens originating in the Alps can reach France or the southern part of the former Yugoslavia, covering over 900 kilometers (Baumgartner, 1988). This wandering involves an obvious increase in the risks of survival, connected more than anything else to the lack of knowledge of the territories and the anthropic presence that

remains the main cause of the direct and indirect destruction of the Eagles. The percentage of young people who die of hunger is also very high, especially when they move into a hypotrophic environment, which does not know enough. In the Central European area, nine young Eagles out of ten (90%) die before their four years of life (Baumgartner, 1988). This consideration is also endorsed by other authors (Fasce & Fasce, 1984 - Brown & Watson, 1964, etc.) with small percentage variations (75/80%).

It is also observed that the couple relationship can also be established between sub-adult or between an immature and an adult, and it is obvious that in these cases the couple will not be able to reproduce until the sexual immaturity of the subjects will remain.

Sometimes it may happen to observe a number of specimens of Golden Eagle in the same locality. These are random aggregations of young erratic people looking for territory. These individuals, however, do not have any connection between them so much that after a few days they disperse independently.

To conclude, it should be emphasized that the territorial competition between the various couples is important because it avoids the risk of supernumerary in the individual areas.

At the end of this chapter we must address a lively prayer to the readers and, although it may be realistic that the work has an echo, even to non-readers, so that they avoid approaching the nests occupied by the Eagles during the reproductive period and learn to respect the needs of the bird of prey, making among other things aware that even a small disturbance can be fatal for nesting. We learn to behave in a civil way, respectful of the rhythms of nature: the Eagle will be grateful!

Finally another recommendation: if we have discovered an active nest of Aquila or even another bird of prey, let's keep it jealously secret because the disclosed news can reach the ears of some evil intentioned or unscrupulous curious that could jeopardize the nesting or in any case cause serious disturbance for the raptor.

Hunting and feeding

1. Premise

The Golden Eagle is a "superpredator", valuable for the balance of populations of an ecosystem, as it acts at all levels of the food chain, including predators and carrion. The breadth of its food spectrum determines its survival capacity as well as its wide geographical distribution. Equipped with a formidable rostrum, it has no difficulty in tearing and cutting the meat; the powerful claws, up to 8-9 cm long. (rear claw), seize the prey and kill it, also because the effect of the "beaten" increases its penetration capacity; where this is not enough, the rostrum intervenes and is able to break through the cranial wall of larger prey. The claws also serve to carry branches or prey in the nest, or move it from one place to another; sometimes the eagle uses its beak to transport small prey or branches. In addition to the rostrum and claws, the Golden Eagle owes its extraordinary predatory ability to the exceptional visual acuity with a high resolution power, comparable to the human power enhanced by binoculars at least 8-10 magnifications.

1. Hunting techniques

As we have seen before, to get the food you need, the Royal Eagle performs two different hunting techniques: the stalking hunt and the surprise or raid hunt.

The stalking hunt is inconspicuous; the bird of prey perches on a dominant perch from which it scrutinizes the surrounding territory, until, once identified a prey, it throws on it in "beaten", with wings closed or half-closed, possibly helping with some powerful wingbeat; the result of the bloody clash is often fatal for the unfortunate prey. This type of hunting seems to be preferred by the Golden Eagle (Chiavetta, 1981).

The surprise or raid hunting takes place in flight; first the bird of prey patrols the territory from a very high position, then lowers the altitude to scour the grasslands, scree and rocky walls with flying, relying on the surprise factor, helped by natural masks such as bushes, ridges, depressions, prominent rocks . As we know, the hunt also happens in pairs ("tandem hunting"), with the following modalities: while an Eagle flies close to the ground to flush out and scare the prey, the other flies higher, at 100-200 meters from the ground, ready to launch on the unfortunate victim who tries to escape.

It should be noted that when you have the opportunity to see a golden eagle circling slowly in the sky gaining altitude, you are not witnessing a hunting scene, but a simple patrol of the territory or a phase of altitude climb. It should also be added that assisting live to a complete hunting scene is an extremely rare event often linked to randomness and long hours of observation. Eagles usually prey on the ground, but they also sometimes hunt birds in flight. In fact, despite its considerable size, the Golden Eagle is a real "acrobatic pilot", able to catch in flight even birds provided with remarkable agility, such as the rafts and the kestrels. It must be said that

when the Eagle tries to seize prey on the ground, the impact is often disordered and chaotic.

To complete the topic, mention must be made of: a) the capture of hidden prey among the apical branches of the trees; b) the predation of large ungulates that the Eagle, using appropriate maneuvers, pushes to a cliff from which it precipitates them, to then be able to feed them with complete tranquility.

On one occasion, I observed a curious fact. The female of a couple appeared to the sight with a chough (coralline or alpine) preyed tight between the legs; after a quick vaulting in the slide he headed for the nest where he landed there a little within which there was an eagle of about 60 days. After a few moments, the Eagle left, but the no-minded chough took the flight too, without showing evident signs of vital impairments. Needless to describe my and the eagle's amazement! Very often I have found partridges nesting close (facing or frontal lands) to the active nests of the Eagles, although Galliforme was discreetly included in the raptor's diet. The same I noticed in Finland where, very close to a nest (on tree), it was in fact a nesting of capercaillie.

Sometimes the Eagle, if it fails the direct attempt to capture a prey of land, and the latter does not flee, can clumsily groped with the claws of ghermirla, without resuming the flight, but rarely manages to get results.

The physiology of L'Aquila has considerable importance in the performance of predation, as the male, with a wingspan and a lower weight than the female, is more lightning in hunting, especially as regards the capture of birds. On two occasions I happened to witness the capture of crows in flight by the male only, after the female had to give up, despite repeated attempts. The female, on the other hand, being larger and more robust, is however more suitable to protect the eggs and the chicken in the nest with its bulk.

A theory about the different dimensions of the male and the female, considers that the male of a golden eagle is smaller than the female, usually 10%, to avoid that during the reproductive cycle, driven by its exuberant aggression annoy the female compromising nesting (Amadon, 1975 in Fasce & Fasce, 1984).

However, the relationship between the degree of difference in size between the two sexes (dimorphism) and the diet (Olsen, 1991) is evident. More generally, it is possible to see that among the species that must catch agile and fast prey, the female is much larger than the male. On the other hand, there are species that capture slow prey or eat carrions such as the griffin; in this case they show little or no size dimensions (there is therefore a slight dimorphism or monomorphism) (Olsen, 1991).

As regards the time, it should be noted that all hours of the day are good for hunting and flying, although some authors, such as Fasce & Fasce (1984), state that "... In stable weather conditions there are two peak activity points, one in the early hours of the morning, from about one hour after sunrise until three hours later, another one from a couple of hours. hours, in the early afternoon, shortly after the sun has passed the zenith, interspersed with long periods of rest.

Sometimes though, these rhythms seem to be thickened and the Eagles fly almost all day ".

Personally I have rarely observed Eagles active in the hunting phase in the central hours of the very hot days (in the regions of the extreme north the schedules, during the summer, obviously change radically because there is always light). To crown what has been said so far regarding the Eagle

hunting techniques, it should be noted that overall, the hunting attempts with a negative result make up more than 50-70% of the total. In other words, the number of successful attacks is very low. In a male, in the Alps, it reached 9% and in a couple 17% (Gensbol, 1992).

On one occasion, I witnessed the unsuccessful attempt to predict the golden eagle's predation in the face of a fox. By a whisker, the carnivore avoided the bird of prey that, having failed to catch it, came to the ground a few feet away from the fox. The latter, with its half-way tail, promptly backed away but did not run away because there was not a proper hiding place in the immediate vicinity. He had the cunning to control the bird of prey by turning carefully around a couple of meters away. When the Eagle, seeing the impossibility of continuing the hunt, resumed the flight with difficulty, the fox, trotting and constantly checking the bird of prey, went away taking refuge in a patch of brambles located a few hundred meters away.

A surprise attack allows L'Aquila to capture a prey even in good health, robust and strong. But if the attack turns into chase and at the same time there are more specimens (for example corvids or galliformes), the Eagle will probably capture only a light prey, less gifted and perhaps even weakened (selective predation) (Kenward, 1991).

In rare circumstances, a golden eagle can subtract prey from another raptor (cleptoparasitism) such as a bearded vulture (Fasce & Fasce, 1992) or even a peregrine falcon (personal observation).

Sometimes I happened to observe a golden eagle passing a reptile from legs to its beak during the flight.

Despite the predatory activity or the retrieval of carcasses by the Golden Eagle, it normally takes place in open environments, in one circumstance I observed a couple intent on eating a deer carrion inside a fairly closed wood. On that occasion the Eagles to reach the carcass covered a walk in the woods. Probably the couple managed to locate the prey thanks to the numerous crows that "moved" the area (at the time of the observation I will not record any corvids).

1. The alimentary regime

The diet of the Eagles varies according to the geographical areas in which they live, as well as the seasonal period considered; then there is a close proportional correlation between the potential food capacities of the territory considered (carryng capacity) and the density of the pairs present in the territory itself. The wide geographical distribution determines therefore considerable variations of the diet: on the Alps the marmot is an important prey, while on the Apennines are the hares and the partridges. In the central French Massif the primacy belongs to wild rabbits, while in eastern Europe to the citellum (Baumgartner, 1988). In Scotland the wild rabbit, the hare and the Tetraonids are the preferred prey, while in every part of its range any animal carrion is almost always accepted during the winter period. In a Scottish couple it was found that 94% of his diet was based on the wild rabbit and the hare (Love & Watson, 1990), while another couple established in the Hebrides was specialized in wild cats (Love & Watson, 1990). Also in the Emmental (Switzerland) a couple specialized in the capture of wild cats (Baumgartner, 1988). In certain Alpine districts (eg in the Val Monastero in the Grisons), the marmot, during the favorable season, is within 80% of the

raptor's diet (Baumgartner, 1988). In Finland the main prey are birds (personal observation).

In the overall diet of the Eagle the pre-eminent part consists of the predation of mammals (70-80%) of small and medium size (hare, marmot, wild rabbit, fox, etc.), rarely from the small chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) , of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and ibex (Capra ibex) . Even some domestic animals, such as poultry, lambs, kids, dogs and cats, can be part of the Golden Eagle diet, especially in heavily populated areas; it should however be stressed that these catches are not on the agenda and are totally irrelevant to the potential of the livestock of a given area. In Scotland, the Eagle has been seen on many occasions eating carcasses of sheep and lambs; but only rarely has he preached live lambs (Hammond & Pearson, 1993; Love & Watson, 1990).

The birds take typically a secondary role, but not irrelevant, in the Eagle diet; in the northern areas of the planet, as mentioned for Finland, they represent instead the main prey of the raptor, attesting from 40 to 70% of the total predation (Ménatory, 1976 in Fasce & Fasce, 1984; Klaesson, 1985). Predated birds are mostly made up of tetraonids, followed by corvids; turdidae or other birds of prey can occasionally be preyed (kestrels, sparrow- hawks, buzzards, tawny owls, etc.).

In many areas of the South (central-southern Italy, the Balkans, Greece), where the presence of mammals is less important, reptiles, mainly in areas where they are well represented, are an important food source, especially during the breeding of young people (personal observation). Vipers (Fasce & Fasce, 1984 - personal observation) are also recorded. The occasional capture of amphibians as frogs and frogs (to be reconfirmed) also seems to be reported . Some authors (Gordon, 1955 in Fasce & Fasce, 1984) also mention rare cases of insect trapping. Tortoises are predicted, then dropped from above to break their shells (Hammond & Pearson, 1993; Mezzatesta, 1989). L'Aquila takes about 30 meters in height, then drops the prey. If the carapace does not break, repeat the operation (similar to the bearded vulture). Most cases were detected in France, Bulgaria and Israel. In particular, a couple settled near Jerusalem usually routinely produced a large number of turtles (Hammond & Pearson, 1993). Occasionally it has also been seen catching fish (Love & Watson, 1990).

A not inconsiderable part in the diet of the Eagles, especially during the winter season, is represented by the carrion ; these are never used for feeding the birds in the nest. However, in exceptional cases when the eaglet in the nest is very large and almost close to the fly, it can occasionally be fed even with meat harvested from a very fresh carrion (personal observation).

The usual prey that normally the Golden Eagle grasps in its territory of residence, often fits a wide range of species. In fact, in northern Sweden examining 3000 prey, it was possible to identify 57 different types of animals, of which 2/3 were birds (Klaesson, 1985). However, in biomass, the ornithic species equated those of mammals. Klaesson (1985) asserts that in Northern Scandinavia the Golden Eagle has 3 main prey: capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) (38%), variable hare (Lepus timidus) (30%), young reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) (17%) , although changes may occur between one year and the next (similar situation in Finland). As for the predation of reindeer in general, the Eagles attack the newly hatched specimens with a clear preference for the weakest or better still-born (Klaesson, 1985). In Sweden it has been calculated that the Eagles capture an average of 600 reindeer babies per year (while the average birth rate of young reindeer is around

86,000) (Klaesson, 1985). Research in Finland showed that one third of the captured reindeer babies were stillborn (Klaesson, 1985).

Over the years I have witnessed numerous attempts to hunt by the Golden Eagle even if only in eight cases I was lucky enough to see its final success. In fact it is extremely difficult and rare to be able to observe in direct all the hunting phases of the raptor. Of the eight cases mentioned only in 5 I could see the real "grip". The observations confirmed, among other things, the high percentage of failures.

In summary we have the following data:

Observed hunting attempts: 36 Positive results: 8

Rake hunting or similar: 23 Stalking Hunting: 13

Successes of stalking hunting: 3 Successes of rake hunting or similar: 5

An adult Eagle that can not feed itself due to bad weather or other reasons, can endure long fasts that last up to ten days. Different is the case of the birds in the nest that need a fairly regular feeding. Fasce & Fasce (1984) state that the Golden Eagle seems to be able to predict the atmospheric trend 24 hours in advance.

The prey of L'Aquila in most cases have a lower weight of the bird of prey; the heaviest prey are rarely used. Transports of prey greater than 4 kg are to be considered already exceptional, but transports of more than 5 kg are documented, even if in particular conditions, with wind in favor and in glide (Glutz, 1971 in Fasce & Fasce, 1984). It is obvious that prey that far exceed the aforementioned weight limit are consumed on the spot. We must not forget, however, that the Golden Eagle has an extraordinary power of impact on the prey, to the point that the falconers of Mongolia and the Kyrgyz ones train it in the wolf hunting as well as the gazelle, the wild goat and the fox! (Love & Watson, 1990). Chiavetta (1981) states that the largest prey predators from the Golden Eagle reach six to seven kilograms.

The daily food requirement of an Eagle ranges around 300 grams net (320 g according to Brown & Watson, 1964 - 250 g on average according to Chiavetta, 1981). During the colder season, the requirement increases by at least 50-70 g. The undigested foods are rejected in the form of bullets, called boluses or wads. Their analysis facilitates the study of the feeding of the Eagles; they have an elongated shape and measure on average a length of 8 x 2-3 cm of width, even if we sometimes find 10-12 cm wads. (personal observation). According to studies by Brown and Watson (1964, in Fasce & Fasce, 1984), the territory where a pair of royal eagles is located in Scotland must be able to provide the couple and the young people during the year an approximate quantity of 320 kg of prey and carrion. As we have seen, the food harvesting carried out by the Golden Eagle in a given territory is minimal, but at the same time it is precious for the balance of the populations of the predated species. Overall L'Aquila is a very eclectic diner, not so much for their own choice, but for the trophic shortage that often afflicts its territory (for example in the Apennines). Paradoxically, in Sweden, if voles are abundant, the Golden Eagle indirectly draws a great advantage from it. In fact, the fox and ermine, the main predators of the capercaillie (prey elected for the royal eagle of those districts), are "oriented" towards the capture of

abundant rodents, overshadowing the galliformes, which more numerous are prey easier for the raptor (Klaesson, 1985).

The species preyed by an Eagle are also depending on the season. In fact, during the summer the raptor's diet is enriched for example by numerous reptiles (Apennines) that instead can not capture in winter. We will therefore have a seasonal variation also as a function of the reproductive success of potential prey.

From my field notes we get the feeding of four pairs of Golden Eagle in the central Apennines in the course of twelve years on the basis of 327 prey whose discontinuity the species could be identified or at least the class. The data are probably incomplete and therefore simply indicative.

Total amount of prey: 327 Mammals: 129

Birds: 107

Reptiles: 79

Other: 12

The mentality that leads us to consider predators as harmful in the natural economy is the result of ignorance, as much as it is for the wolf, persecuted in all latitudes and all cultures. To conclude, another prejudice must be debunked: the Eagle does not seem to be ever aggressive towards man, even when he loots the eggs or the pulli. Aggressive forms can register if you suddenly enter a nest while the eagle is inside. The bird of prey to escape could attack or at least disturb the intruder.

Synopsis of the Golden Eagle in Europe

(list in alphabetical order)

 

Mammals

Pets (lambs, kids, cats, dogs) Voles

Chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) Wild boar (Sus scrofa, small) Citellus (Spermophilus citellus) Wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) Weasel (Mustela nivalis)

Ermine (Mustela erminea) Faina (Martes foina) Wildcat (Felis silvetris) Porcupine (Hystrix cristata)

Common hare (Lepus europaeus) Variable hare (Lepus timidus) Wolf (Canis lupus, puppies) Marmot (Marmota marmota) Martora (Martes martes)

Skunk (Mustela putorius) Quercino (Eliomys quercinus) Rats

Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) Hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris)

Ibex (Capra ibex) Tasso (Meles meles) Fox (Vulpes vulpes)

Birds

Anatidi

Pigeon (Columba palumbus)

Colombella (Columba oenas)

Hooded gray and black (Corvus corone cornix and Corvus corone corone)

Raven (Corvus frugilegus) Raven (Corvus corax) Coturnice (Alectoris graeca)

Pheasant (Phasianus phasianus)

Grouse (black grouse)

European coot (Fulica atra) Francolin (Francolinus francolinus) Moorhen (Gallinula chloropus) Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus)

Alpine chough (Pyrrhocorax graculus) Coral chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax) Cranes (Grus grus)

Goose granaiola (Anser fabalis)

Lesser white- fronted goose (Anser erythropus)

Common bustard (Otis tarda)

Ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus)

Red- legged partridge (Alectoris rufa)

Wild pigeon (Columba livia)

Quail (Coturnix coturnix)

Diurnal and nocturnal birds of prey Starna (Perdix perdix)

Jackdaw (Corvus monedula) Tortora (Streptotelia turtur) Waders

Thrushes

Others, to a lesser extent

Reptiles and Amphibians

Ramarro (Lacerta viridis)

Frogs and toads (to be reconfirmed) Snakes (including vipers)

Land tortoises (Testudo sp.)

Others

Cited cases of catches of insects and fish.

Carrion, species of mammals (important source of feeding, especially in winter).

Observe  Eagles  feeding  in  isolated  landfills  (at  least  4  personal observations).

 

1. The feeding technique

The technique that the raptor uses in its feeding is quite simple. The eagle with the strong paws keeps the prey, then using the fearsome rostrum the tears the meat pulling them with force not before having plucked it (penne or hair according to the prey) even partially. When it feeds instead of a very large prey (chamois, roe deer, ibex, fox, etc.) the eagle rests on it and tears the meat with the help of the beak without having to use the legs. The same technique imitates the chicken in the nest, but the first times it does so in a disordered and unbalanced way. A snake is not swallowed whole but broken up piece by piece.

I happened to observe a young man of 70 days of life grappling in the nest, with a small prey that wriggled despite being about to die. On that occasion, the young man, though holding the prey firmly in his talons, seemed quite frightened, until - after overcoming the trauma - he began to tear the flesh of what appeared to be a wretched vole.

Thanks to numerous personal observations on individuals of Golden Eagle intent on feeding on various kinds of carcasses (horses, sheep, deer, roe deer, chamois, etc.), I can summarize the following data:

1. In the initial phase of the presence of the carcass, the Eagles sail for a long time on several occasions without going down immediately; sometimes they do not come down at all.
2. While adults generally maintain a certain diffidence, young people of the year, if present, in almost all the cases observed showed a relatively more determined and unscrupulous behavior both in approaching and in eating. However, sometimes I also found a certain mistrust. Often the young people of the year when they are still settled in their territory of origin, constantly recall their parents even while they feed. This obviously does not occur for young people and erratic sub-adults who are no longer linked to their territory of origin and to parental care.
3. The various specimens of Aquila have never fed together, but always take turns. This custom however can not be elevated to law, because it would require further, long observation.
4. If the couple is present in the carcass area with the young man of the year, I have always observed that the young is the one who feeds the most (not in the sense of dominance). In fact, adults always remain dominant.
5. From what I have directly observed, I have found that the Eagles are used to start the meal of a mammalian carrion starting from the muscles of the back, when, after these, it passes to eat the meat placed in the bony interstices, without ever touching the entrails (rule not generalizable). However, if the carcass has been prepared already completely clean (without skin, innards, etc.), the Eagles can start feeding in a completely random way.
6. On the carcasses the Golden Eagle is always dominant compared to all the other species of birds (only with reference to personal observations).

As an example, I report a summary of the data collected on a chamois carcass actively visited by 3 individuals of Golden Eagle (2 adults + the young man of the year - observations carried out at about 400 meters away).

number of days of the carcase: 7

n ° total attendance at the carer: 19 n ° presences of the young: 10

n ° adult male presences: 5

n ° adult female presences: 4

time spent by the Eagles on the carer: young 5.25 h; adult male 2.12 h; adult female 1.54 h.

presence in hours of the young man near the carer without feeding: 13.50 h. presence in hours of the adult male near the carer without feeding: 4.08 h presence in hours of the adult female next to the carer without feeding: 3.26

h.

I have never seen that an eagle intent on feeding on a carrion has been removed from the corvids or vultures, while at the arrival of the wolves the bird of prey flies away (personal observation). In two circumstances I observed two young Eagles beating insistently on an adult intent on feeding on a deer carcass in an attempt to get him to move away. This behavior was also detected by Gensbol (1992).

Even the Eagles like many other birds of prey have places, generally quiet and isolated, preferential where to consume a prey (pluking place) (personal observations - Chiavetta, 1981). However many times it happens that the raptor consumes the prey in the place where he has captured it. This happens especially when it comes to a large prey, difficult to carry or small prey. The Eagles do not seem to have the habit of concealing food, such as corvids, to make stocks (to be checked); the only form of pseudo- concealment, is to cover in the nest with leaves or branches the remains of a prey to be used later (this practice is not always performed).

To complete the notes on the feeding of the golden eagle, a further observation seems to me important: in case of necessity the raptor greatly increases the food spectrum; this seems to give yet another denial to those who see the Aquila as the ruthless exterminator of the noblest and most significant prey of the ecological scenario.

As for the defecation of the bird of prey it is observed that it defecates when it is placed on a perch, or when it is in flight. In many occasions I have indeed seen the Eagle "spray" the dejection while it was in flight.

1. Artificial bowers

Very often, especially in the context of protected territories and not yet rebalanced from the trophic point of view, the establishment of artificial charcoal is started to favor the food supply of the Eagles and other wild species (for example wolves, bears, vultures) .

The carnai are usually made especially during the winter providing from time to time whole carcasses (for example of sheep), dislocandole in points easily accessible by the raptor and sufficiently quiet. However, the undoubted advantages that this practice can bring to the life of the bird of prey is opposed to the risk of the possible harmful addiction of bird of prey to the ease of food supply and the danger of poisoning of carcasses by criminals.

However, to reduce the risk of addiction, the intervention should be done irregularly, with long pauses in periods when it is less necessary (spring- summer). To counteract the risk of poisoning the operation must be kept secret and the relocation of the baker frequently moved. In any case it is good to always carry out adequate surveillance.

Once the good recovery from the predatory wildlife of the raptor (hares, partridges, marmots, etc.) has been ascertained, it is advisable to suspend completely or almost the practice of the carnai.

NB It is essential to use only carcasses of animals free of diseases and not treated with chemotherapeutic drugs (strict veterinary control).

It should be remembered that the dreadful practice of poisoning of whole carcasses or small pieces of meat, largely implemented in past years, has caused real massacres among wildlife, including the Eagles. Fortunately, in recent times the phenomenon now completely banned by law, has significantly reduced even if from time to time there are also cases of serious mass poisonings. As mentioned also the Eagles both in direct and indirect form can fall victim to the poison. However, during the winter season the risk is greater because the scarcity of prey, the adverse weather or in any case the greater difficulty of active predation, induces the eagles to feed on occasional carcasses and even small bites. On the contrary during the summer season when potential prey is more numerous and the stability of time favors hunting, the chances seem to decrease (personal observation).

Population dynamics, interspecific relationships, various

1. The properties of the population

A population is defined as a group of organisms of the same species that live in a specific area and have peculiar characteristics with respect to phenomena related to birth, mortality, density, biotic potential, dispersion and growth patterns (Odum, 1973).

The birth rate is the relationship between the number of births and the sum of the subjects that form a population.

The mortality is the death of the complex considered quantitatively in relation to a given population.

The density is the ratio between the total number of individuals existing in a given territory and the territory itself.

The biotic potential is the theoretical maximum reproductive potential of a species.

By dispersion we mean the diffusion of the various individuals in the environment.

The forms of growth are those that occur between living organisms differentiated according to species - (Odum, 1973).

1. Structure of the populations of Aquila reale

The population of the Golden Eagle is the complex of pairs of the species settled in a given territory (region, mountain range, such as the Alps or the Apennines, etc.); we talk about individuals when we consider the individual specimens that make up the population.

The Golden Eagle is a bird of prey that, as we all know, colonizes the mountain territories as well as the great plains of the extreme north of almost the entire Holoartic Region. The isolated individuals unite to form a stable monogamous couple that settles in a given territory, energetically defended by conspecifics. The young man who has been brought to the crown for the reproductive period will remain with the parents for several months, usually until the next breeding season and, even later, if the couple does not reproduce.

The characteristics of the territory generate a greater or lesser density of the pairs, to the point that these can be from a minimum of 2-3 kilometers up to many tens of kilometers.

1. Interaction between conspecifics

As we have seen above, the entire area occupied and habitually frequented by the couple is called home range, and has a width that varies according to the environmental conditions. The home range includes sub-areas, such as hunting sites, nesting sites and nests. It should be noted in this regard, as repeatedly stated, that the couple does not tolerate the presence of the like in

the nesting site, which is the "hub" of the home range, while in the marginal hunting areas that presence is relatively tolerated, to the point that in some cases a kind of overlapping of territories can occur (Gordon, 1955 in Fasce & Fasce, 1984 - Chiavetta, 1981 - Watson, 1997 - personal observations). It seems undoubtedly strange, but not without a sort of "Franciscan" spirit, that in some circumstances a young erratic man is accepted for a certain period of time in the couple community (personal observation).

The uninterrupted defense of one's territory is a stressful activity that requires a great expenditure of energy. The intruder is dealt with immediately with aggressive manifestations that consist mainly of continuous beatings. If the intruder eagle, usually a young man in search of territory, does not withdraw, a real battle takes place which usually ends in a bloodless form with the invaders' escape. The attack is lightning-the two Eagles cling to their claws and drop for a while. Then they give up their grip, take up altitude and repeat the action. Often the Eagle, owner of the disputed territory, performs numerous beatings "on the edge" towards the intruder who eventually abandons the area. Sometimes, though rarely, "encounters" can also produce serious injuries or even cause the death of one of the contenders.

As said, these exhausting fights are as frequent as the density of the Eagles in the area, and the greater the presence of young people. In fact, when adults occupy a territory permanently, they almost always respect the territorial limits.

The competition that is established between the Eagles for the division of vital territories is of extreme importance for the survival of individuals, as an excessive load of Eagles in the same territory would soon lead to serious food imbalances and the subsequent disappearance of the nesting. The substantial presence of alien Eagles in a occupied territory promotes the increase in the mortality rate of the broods (Baumgartener, 1988). In fact, the strong presence of strangers pushes the residents, as we have seen, to face continuous clashes, to "neglect" the brooding and to compromise the hunt for the feeding of the pullo (Baumgartenr, 1988). In the Swiss Alps in the fifties, when the number of couples was lower than today, the negative outcome of the brooding and breeding was lower (Baumgartener, 1988). Currently, however, with a quantitatively healthier population, on average, only one young person per couple every two years is invaded (Baumgartener, 1988).

There are rarely cases of the removal of an individual of the couple permanently settled in a territory by an erratic and sometimes immature subject (personal observation dubious - Love & Watson, 1990).

1. The change of a member of a couple

Over the years I have witnessed in different circumstances (4) the change of an element of the couple (in all cases death or "disappearance" of the female).

From the observations made during the replacement / integration phases, I summarized the following data:

the male left alone actively controls the territory, from which he expels any other males who are passing through the central area of the territory;

once the erratic female has "conquered" the partner, the harmony between the two happens fairly quickly;

the new female helped by the male quickly acquires a considerable knowledge of the new territory; in one case, he had carefully inspected all the nests he had available from 5/7 onwards. In other circumstances, however, the awareness of the various reproductive sites was equally rapid enough;

on four females changed three of them were subadult with a mean age of 3-4 years (or at least they had such features);

in one case the female was missing (probable death by poisoning) when the birds in the nest had a few days; the surviving male failed to survive the offspring;

the couples reconstituted after the following days (indicative data only): I ° and II ° case 15/25 - III ° case 30/50 - IV ° case 55/60 (the latter for reference only;

the ready settlement of new couples, demonstrates the presence of numerous erratic on the territory;

despite the changed females were subadulte, 3 out of 4 immediately attempted the nesting (two couples invaded a pullo each).

Cases of insertion of a new member were recorded after just 8 days (Borlenghi, 1992).

1. Interspecific relationships

The Golden Eagle occupies the summit of the food chain of an ecosystem, a shared position in the central Apennine area with the wolf and the bear; feared by most of the animals living in its area, it plays a fundamental role in the natural selection of its potential prey.

1. Corvids

In the context of the history of its relationship with the other species, the imperturbable philosophy with which the royal eagle bears the frequent intimidating attacks coming from corvids (mobbing) (black and gray crows, alpine and coral crests, crows) deserves particular mention. imperial, jays, nocciolaie) also in joint form (sometimes it is also intruding some raptor as for example the kestrel); in this case his reaction consists mostly in ignoring the disturbers altogether, or threatening them rather "kindly" with the claws and with a symbolic stroke of the wing. Corvids annoy the bird of prey with repeated beatings, both when it is in flight and when it is laid; when a corvid "haunts" an Eagle emits continuous calls to attract the attention of conspecifics, something that often disturbs the hunting of the Eagles. The call of corvids, especially that of crows (Corvus corene cornix) and of the raven (Corvus corax), is a precious indicator for the naturalist, as it informs him of the presence in the area of the Eagles. A curious note: sometimes the jays (Garrulus glandarius) imitate the line of the Eagles, and they also succeed very well, but a trained "ear" is able to discover "the trick".

On numerous occasions I have witnessed predatory attacks of the Golden Eagle in regard to the coral chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax) . Most attempts have always failed, while on two occasions a corvid fell victim to the raptor. Generally when the choughs are attacked by the Eagles, if numerous, try to grind themselves to disorient the bird of prey and to get away with agile

maneuvers of escape. The cohesion of the group is slightly dismembered, while as soon as the Eagle moves away, the corvids, if they do not intend to disturb the raptor (beaten), promptly move away (personal observation is not generalizable).

If a chough is preyed, the other individuals in the group after a possible rapacious disorder, are led to leave (personal observation). The crows instead, if attacked or even predated, beat with vehemence and determination towards the Eagle for a very long time. Several times I observed an adult of the Golden Eagle, which had a hooded crow in its claws. Almost always the companions of the prey tirelessly beat the raptor and in one case the disturbance lasted over 15 minutes (the Eagle was placed on a rocky spur intent on plucking the victim).

From the field observations I noticed that the coral gills attack the Eagles less consistently than the crows.

The imperial crow (Corvus corax) , on the other hand, like the crows, attacks all the Eagles that come to shot for a long time, continuing in the operation for a long time. It seems that sometimes the raven manages to prey the eggs of the Eagles (Durrell, 1992). In Finland, a similar event was reported to me. On a total of 97 corvidae attacks on the Golden Eagle taken as a reference to give the idea, I summarized the following indicative data:

hooded crow: 34

imperial crow: 31

chough / alpine chough: 17 others (jay, etc.): 15

It should be reiterated that the disturbance of the crows and the raven was always longer than the other corvids.

1. The raptors

Often, the petulant beaten up crows or imperial crows (mobbing) are flanked by agile and insistent kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) that often work in pairs (if they are present, young people of the year can also intervene). Besides the kestrel also other birds of prey, such as the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), the buzzard (Buteo buteo) , the sparrow- hawk (Accipiter nisus), the brown kite (Milvus migrans) and the albanelle (Circus sp.) , Can disturb the Eagles (there are also joint actions) (personal observations).

The territorial competition against other rupicolous species is almost completely absent, but it should be noted however that it is difficult for Aquila to dislodge the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) from an occupied territory (personal observation - Fasce & Fasce, 1984), also because the falcon, especially during the breeding of offspring, is very aggressive. In any case, however, the Eagle is always dominant especially if it is present in a valley before the pilgrim; in this case it has the "right" of precedence to the nest. However, there are rare cases of the nesting of the pilgrim less than 1 kilometer from the Golden Eagle (Ractliffe, 1993) and even more episodic at 300 meters (Wormell in Ractliffe, 1993). In a central Apennine area, a couple of peregrine falcons nest at about 600 meters from the nests of the Eagles; there are violent clashes between the two species and it is always the pilgrim who begins. MacNally (1979) also registers cases of predation of royal eagle on a pilgrim, predation found in northern Sweden (Klaesson, 1985), also

mentioned by Love & Watson (1990) in other territory. On the other hand, there are no rare cases of kestrel nesting (Falco tinnunculus) in areas adjacent to the Golden Eagle's nests (personal observation). No problem for the other small rupicolous species (woodpecker, mountain swallow, etc.). The Golden Eagle and the Imperial Eagle can divide the same territory because there is no direct competition between the two species (de la Fuente, 1983). On one occasion I witnessed the removal of a prey (wood pigeon) to a peregrine falcon from an adult male of the Golden Eagle (cleptoparasitism).

Regarding the relationship with the vultures, in particular with the bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) , it is observed that between the two species there is no overlap of the alimentary niche since, as known, the bearded vulture feeds mainly of dead animals, in particular of their bones. The nesting sites of the two species remain distinct, but this does not mean that the two species can meet in flight, and here engage spectacular battles areas (Fasce & Fasce, 1984 - Genero 1994, personal communication), but almost always bloodless. In 1993 in the Stelvio National Park there was a "hard" encounter between a golden eagle and a bearded vulture, the latter coming from the reintroduction carried out in the neighboring Swiss territory. In 1993 a bearded vulture, also coming from the reintroductions made on the alpine arc, collaborated in the construction of a nest with a pair of Golden Eagle! (Genero 1995, personal communication). The Golden Eagle is generally dominant in feeding on the carrion towards the griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) and the bearded vulture , even if the latter is intimidated less (Genero 1994, personal communication). On the other hand, as mentioned, he promptly moves away if a pack of wolves (personal observation) flock to the carrion. In certain locations in Spain, the expansion of the griffin is subtracting the nesting sites of the bearded vulture, the Egyptian vulture, the Golden Eagle and even more to the Bonelli's eagle. In fact the griffins "take possession" of the nests of these species because, as is known, they begin the reproduction in advance (deposition January-March) (Donazar, 1993; Fernandez & Donazar, 1991 in Dentesani et al., 1995).

From the point of view of food, there are numerous cases of successful predation by the Golden Eagle in regard to diurnal and nocturnal birds of prey (among nocturnal cases there are rare cases of predation on eagle owls: 4 cases reported by Penteriani, 1996 - v also Mikkola, 1983).

1. The mobbing

As we have seen, the disturbing actions performed on the Golden Eagle by other birds (mainly corvids), are defined by the English term "mobbing". Mobbing is activated both when the Eagle is in flight and when it is placed. Sometimes it manifests itself even when the bird of prey is intent on feeding on prey or on a baker. In general, the duration ranges from a few seconds to several minutes, until it lasts a lot, especially when the Eagle is placed and is near a source of food that has gathered a large group of "patrons". Characteristic is the "corte" of crows and crows that follow an Eagle for a long time as it passes through a given location.

The personal observations on the field seem to show that the actions of disturbance are more frequent during the breeding season (out of 610 registered cases 397 occurred during the breeding season, while 213 during the rest of the season). However, during this period I have always carried out a greater number of findings that may have caused the impression of the

previous statement. In the areas where the corvids are scarce the primacy of the attacks lies without a shadow of doubt to the kestrel even if sometimes the latter is in first place even where corvids are abundant (personal observation, not generalizable). As mentioned earlier, mobbing is sometimes exercised jointly by different species (raptors and corvids) without being able to speak of coordinated attack. All medium-large raptors are subject to the phenomenon even if for certain species it is certainly smaller (for example, the griffin is attacked with much less vehemence and constancy). The smaller birds of prey such as the kestrel, the grillaio or the emery undergo very limite.

1. Productivity
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The Golden Eagle reproduces with low productivity values (number of young involvents / number of reproductive periods of the controlled couples).

These values vary significantly from one pair to another; this variability remains high in all geographical areas where the Golden Eagle is distributed. The causes of such a phenomenon are many and some of them have not yet been explained, but simply supposed; the most accredited theory believes that at the base of the mentioned differences there is the alimentation (abundance of the prey - Chiavetta, 1981). Other factors could be identified in the tendencies to self-regulation of populations, to the physiological necessity of productive rest, to climatic conditions and, often, to the disturbance caused by anthropic activities.

The parameters that are taken as reference for calculating the productivity of the populations of Aquila are 3 (with partial modifications from Fasce & Fasce, 1984):

productivity, that is the relationship between young people flew and the number of reproductive periods of the controlled couples;

the rate of flightlessness, or the relationship between the young flew and the successful nesting (Cheylan, 1981);

percentage of couples reproducing with respect to the total number of couples existing in the territory.

The average annual productivity ranges between 0.5 and 1.5 young people for each pair (Chiavetta, 1981). In Europe the figure is lower than in North America (Chiavetta, 1981), as well as in the Apennines compared to the Alpine area (0.5 -1 Alps, ± 0.5 Apennines, Chiavetta, 1981). The strong oscillation of productivity is therefore affected by the place considered.

According to Everett (1971), the number of couples that annually does not nest is between 10 and 25% of the total population (data referring to Scotland). According to the hypothesis of Haller (1982), the degree of productivity is related to population density; in fact, it is easy to understand that a couple, for example, part of a high-density population is assiduously committed to the defense of the vital territory by the conspecifics, and this translates into obvious detriment of the care and assistance of the offspring. From this it follows that the lower the density of Eagles, the greater the productivity. Haller (1982 in Fasce & Fasce, 1984) also states that inhibiting

the reproduction of a couple can also be caused by seeing something that has a braking effect, as can be the negative input connected to the presence of young people in areas adjacent to nesting sites.

The mortality rate of the golden eagle is high among the young and immature; the aforementioned rate decreases considerably with adulthood, so much so that - exceeded the critical point - the Eagle reaches a remarkable longevity that partly compensates for low productivity and early deaths. In this way the populations maintain a certain stability and, if no destructive anthropic factors occur, the species can slowly expand its territory and its population; thus it will be able to reach the peak of expansion, to then oscillate, like any natural phenomenon, between growth and degrowth (constant K).

In the census of the population residing in a territory it is necessary to consider, in addition to the stable couples, also the presence of isolated individuals in search of territory, such as the young, immature, sub-adults and erratic adults. Many authors agree that the maximum number of isolated individuals does not exceed 30% of the population (Fasce & Fasce, 1984).

With regard to the reasons that lead a couple to the failure or non-activation of the breeding season, the following indicative hypotheses may appear:

Failure

1. The couple lays eggs, but leaves them during the hatching cycle (disturbance, strong food shortages, etc.).
2. The constant adverse climatic conditions determine the interruption of the reproductive cycle.
3. Eggs, regularly laid and brooded throughout the cycle, do not hatch for various reasons (unfertilised eggs, chilled eggs, etc.).
4. Nesting does not take place because of the inexperience of the female (sub-adult, first nesting, etc.).
5. The eggs hatch, but the chickens die after a few days.
6. The orphaned chicken of both parents dies; the same fate touches the pullo when the male parent remains alive, as this is not able to assist him during the first phase of the breeding.

Non-activation of reproduction (presumed but not certain causes)

1. The couple is not suitable for reproduction.
2. The strong food shortage (if constant over time can cause the permanent abandonment of the site).
3. The lack of alternative nests (disturbance on the main one or need to do it "rest").
4. Excessive general disorder (if constant over time it can cause the site to be permanently abandoned).
5. Physical condition debilitated especially of the female.
6. Continuous inclement weather (ascertained in the northern territories, doubt in others)
7. Physiological phase of rest.
8. Adaptation for the not excessive exploitation of food resources determined by the continuous breeding (Fasce & Fasce, 1992).

The reproductive success of a pair of Golden Eagle can be favored, as well as a series of positive concomitant factors, such as the tranquility of the site, the abundance of prey, the favorable seasonal trend, and so on, even from the greater or lesser abilities of the couple to carry out the breeding with due care. In fact, it is beyond doubt that the basic "standard" behavior of the species is flanked by variants connected to the ethological characteristics of the single couples. During the long years of observation I noticed evident disparities between one couple and the other, for which we pass from the discovery of extremely thoughtful individuals in breeding, to that of others less soluble and less providential (these considerations are also highlighted by Fasce & Fasce 1984). Sometimes the failure of the nesting can be attributed to the inexperience of the female who does not take care of the eggs with proper caution or does not assist the offspring well (this could be true above all in reference to the first nesting).

As has been repeatedly highlighted, the improvement of the status of the golden eagle in a given territory is certainly related not only to certain specific factors (availability of reproductive sites, tranquility of the territories, etc.), also to the abundant presence of populations of mammals of medium-small size (hares, rabbits, marmots, citelli). A concrete example is offered by the comparison between the populations of the raptor of the Alpine arc with those of the Apennines. In fact, on the Alps there is an abundant presence of prey of this type (especially the marmot) in open environments; it follows that the status of the Golden Eagle is much better than the Apennines where, on the contrary, the prey is scarce or even absent.

1. Longevity and mortality

There is a certain relationship between maximum longevity and raptor size. The larger birds of prey, and therefore the Eagles, live longer than the small ones.

To obtain precise information on the longevity of an eagle (and thus of any other raptor) it is possible to use two systems: 1. collection of data from animals bred in captivity or by falconers; 2. collection of data from wild animals marked (rings). When an Eagle has been ringed, it will keep the mark for life and if it is found after death it will be possible to accurately trace the subject's age (obviously the system is not always effective because wild individuals after death many times are not recovered and therefore escape the investigation). More empirical and not always reliable systems are based instead on the direct knowledge of a certain couple that allows to evaluate the age based on a series of parameters (particular colors of the plumage, distinctive signs, etc.). From the data available in the literature it is clear that the real eagles in nature if they pass the critical period of the first years of life while refining the experience to survive, have a very low mortality rate and can therefore be very long-lived with peaks of 25 -30 years (in France the death of an individual aged 25 and eight months was recorded - Chiavetta, 1981; Love & Watson, 1990). Fasce & Fasce (1984) are inclined to consider that in nature a healthy subject of Golden Eagle can exceed 30 years. The vital record, however, belongs to those in captivity that in some cases have reached 40-50 years (there is a case of 57 years - Glutz, 1971 in Fasce & Fasce, 1984). Seton Gordon (in Love & Watson, 1990) reports a case considered by the most far-fetched of a 95-year-old Eagle in captivity!

The causes of the death of a Golden Eagle (and so of other birds of prey) is to be attributed in most cases to humans both indirectly and directly (over 80%). A study of Doug Keran and the Raptor Rehabilitation Laboratory of the University of Minnesota revealed that 84.3% of the birds of prey had died from human activity (in Henny, 1991). In my experience almost all the eagles I have found dead were for human reasons.

A careful research on the death of birds of prey due to man allows to undertake various initiatives (legislative, behavioral, etc.) to reduce or eliminate the causes.

The main causes of death of a Golden Eagle can therefore be summarized as follows:

Poisonings Poaching Electrocution Various incidents Starvation Disease

Old age

The species with low productivity, just like the Golden Eagle, are exceptionally susceptible to killing and any damage.

However, if optimal or at least satisfactory environmental conditions are guaranteed (abundant prey, tranquility of the sites, etc.), and direct killing of adults is avoided, the longevity of the latter allows to recover the number of workers and to reoccupy quickly territories left free.

1. Parasitic and infectious diseases

The Golden Eagle at liberty (like other birds of prey) can host a large number of organisms, from bacteria to lice. Most guests are harmless as long as they are on a healthy subject and their number is not excessive. However, many pathogens can cause serious disturbance to a subject of Golden Eagle and in some cases even lead to death.

(some examples: avian pox, bacterial diseases transmitted by prey, infections with protozoa, trichonomoniasis, helminths, lice, myiasis, hippocampus).

1. The dispersion of individuals

As known, there are three forms of dispersion: emigration (removal movement), immigration (approach movement) and migration (periodic round-trip movement). The dispersion is influenced both by natural barriers and by vagility, ie by the ability to move (Odum, 1973).

In the case of the Golden Eagle, the population includes individuals who, according to age and geographical location, express a particular behavior. The Golden Eagle is generally a sedentary species , as its individuals remain bound for a lifetime in a given territory. This basic characteristic, however, is specific to the individuals who have formed a stable couple and who are geographically distributed in the less northern territories. In fact, as we know,

the individuals who inhabit the extreme northern regions of the planet (Siberia, Northern Canada, Alaska, Northern Scandinavia, etc.), move in the winter to the south in search of a less inclement weather and longer days .

Young people and sub-adults still lacking a territory are erratic, so they move from one area to another, sometimes covering long distances, so much so that they can talk about real migration. Fasce & Fasce (1984), point out that in some countries the young Aquile without land often disperse widely, as is the case of the subjects allocated in Norway, Finland and Scotland, unlike Italy where the phenomenon is much more contained. I confirm the data on Finland.

The dispersion of the Eagle's specimens can therefore be traced back to the following phenomena:

Winter migrants. Adults-young-sub-adults in a stable couple, settled in the extreme northern regions of the planet.

Erratic. Young people, sub-adults and adults looking for territory and relationship.

On the basis of well-documented observations, it seems that the erraticity of individuals is attenuated in countries with a temperate climate (Cramp & Simmons, 1980).

1. Telemetry in field research

A more and more widespread practice in recent years in the zoological field is radio-marking (or telemetry) that allows us to trace each animal species subjected to research. In birds of prey, telemetry was used to record their movements, dispersion in the territory, migrations, behavior, feeding, etc. This practice was particularly useful especially for the operations of reintroduction of birds of prey in certain territories (for example griffins). The Golden Eagle has also been the subject of telemetric studies (Village, 1991). The general characteristic of radio transmitters is the efficiency of the emission signal and lightness; It has been calculated that birds of prey can carry around without bothering up to 4% of their body weight (Village, 1991). It is always preferable to use light and minimal equipment for raptors. Typically they are of two types:

• like a backpack on the back;
• small structure to be applied on a pen (usually wheelhouse).

The latter type is probably the best (some weigh only 12 gr.) And certainly does not disturb the bird of prey. The maximum reception range is if there is a straight line with no obstacles between the bird and the observer. In recent times, in some special cases, satellite radiolollaries are also used, connected to a computer that can always detect the precise movements of the bird (or mammal).

It is good practice, however, not to exaggerate with such equipment because the threshold between the "necessary" and the "superfluous" is always very labile!

1. The reintroduction of the Golden Eagle

The Golden Eagle has not been the object over the years to particular reintroduction works in the territories in which it had disappeared. However,

in recent times some operations in various parts of the world have been carried out or are in progress. A European example is offered to us by Ireland where, thanks to a project co-funded by the European Union and other local members, we are trying to re-insert the bird of prey that has become extinct in these areas since the beginning of the last century (the area the Glenveagh National Park is interesting and the specimens used come from Scottish couples). Obviously, as for any other species that wants to be reintroduced in a territory, a wide range of studies is needed to verify a whole series of factors that can make such a type of intervention plausible and sustainable: potential reproduction sites, trophic value of the environments, limiting factors due to human activity (pollutants, anthropization, disturbance, etc.), contrasts with local populations, temporal value of the operation, etc.

1. The control mechanisms of the populations of Aquila

Apart from limiting factors connected to the anthropization of the territory, the development of a population of Aquila is subject to self-control impulses that tend to achieve the right relationship between the number of individuals present in a territory and the resources of the territory itself. It is known that no species can develop indefinitely because it finds a limit in the biological potential of the territory in which it lives. Growth or degrowth phenomena may occur, but always oscillating with respect to an average axis defined as "specific biological capacity" (carryng capacity level) which can be considered as the optimal population rate of the species.

The fluctuations of a population of Golden Eagle can therefore be influenced by two general factors: extrinsic factors (usually irregular and dependent on one or more limiting factors), ie interactions outside the population, and intrinsic factors (regular or cyclic), this internal factors of the population. Now, in the context of the consistency of the populations of the Golden Eagle, we know that both the extrinsic factors refer mainly to the anthropic intervention, and the intrinsic limiting factors related to the biology of the Eagle itself.

Among the main intrinsic mechanisms that act as self-control factors of a population of Golden Eagle we can remember:

the division of territory between conspecifics; the emigration of individuals;

the redundancy of the young people of previous years; low productivity;

the slow achievement of sexual maturity.

These control mechanisms are extremely important for the economy of the species and for its balance in the territory.

Among the extrinsic factors that intervene on the limitation of the populations of the Golden Eagle are mentioned:

direct persecution (killings, looting of nests)

anthropogenic alterations of various kinds (tampering with the territory, direct and indirect disturbance during nesting, etc.);

food shortage;

the particularly adverse seasonal weather conditions.

The protection of the Golden Eagle

1. Premise

The strong contraction of the population of the Aquila, and therefore of their distribution area, has meant that in the past years the raptor was included in the "Red list" (rare, category III of abundance, <10,000 pairs - Frugis & Schenk , 1981; Watson, 1994); fortunately in the last few decades, thanks to the more diligent and adequate protective interventions, both direct and indirect, there has been an inversion of tendency, at least as regards some subpopulations (Fasce & Fasce, 1984), but this must not lead to a easy optimism because the Golden Eagle, especially in certain localities, is still a species at risk mainly due to the effect caused by the serious alterations of the territory. The Golden Eagle represents "an admiral" of the healthiness of the mountain territories, so if you leave a mountain it means that negative conditions have been created not only for the raptor.

1. Negative agents

The causes that are at the origin of the risk-Aquila are multiple; the following list indicates the most significant:

Direct kills (hunting, poaching).

Disruption of the nesting, with consequent failure of the same.

Tampering with the rapacious territories (opening of roads, constructions of artefacts such as ski lifts, industrial forestation in sensitive areas for raptors, etc.).

Forestry cuts in nesting areas where eagles use trees for their nest (northern, European, North American, eastern territories).

Hiking, mass mountaineering and other recreational activities (heli-skiing, motocross, off-road, birdwatchers, nature photography, etc.); sources of disturbance of the rapacious hunting activities, also multiply the occasions that compromise nesting.

Poisoning with mouthfuls or through intoxicated carrion.

Phytosanitary and similar poisonings (apparently secondary cause, except localized cases)

Sacking of eggs or nestlings. Falconry (at least in certain forms) Rarefaction of prey (indirect cause).

Deaths due to electrocution (electrocution) and collisions with power line wires.

Collision with industrial wind farms

Collisions with gliders, airplanes or hang-gliders (rare but happened events).

The reading of the previous list can only raise a serious alarm among ornithologists; it seems to us, however, that the alarm should move more dramatically to the ecologists, since the alteration of the territory caused by the anthropic presence is not only fatal for the survival of the Golden Eagle, but it is above all a serious danger for the ecosystem equilibrium as a whole.

In many parts of the planet, where the species is protected, illegal but noticeable downslides are always a reality. In Scandinavia, for example, the Golden Eagle is not threatened with extinction, but illegal hunting is widespread especially by the Lapps (Klaesson, 1985). If these abatements did not occur, the Scandinavian population would increase their status with 10% more young people a year (Klaesson, 1985).

1. Disturbing factors

Disruptive factors are defined as human activities that cause damage to the reproduction of the bird of prey or in any case to the adults themselves (Tormen & Cibien, 1991).

They are divided into direct and indirect. They can affect both the nesting sites and the main and secondary hunting areas of the raptor.

1. - Direct : human activities that deliberately disturb the bird of prey approaching dangerously the reproductive sites.

Examples: poaching, photographers, onlookers, etc.

Eagle reaction : escape and abandonment of the nest (momentary or permanent if the disturbance is continuous). Reduction of hunting activity.

1. - Indirect : human activities that unknowingly disturb the bird of prey in breeding sites and hunting areas.

Examples: hikers, mountaineers, hikers, shepherds and woodsmen, researchers, off-roaders, hang gliders, gliders, paragliders, eliturism, etc.

Reaction of the Eagle : escape and abandonment of the nest (momentary or permanent if the disturbance is continuous). Reduction or impediment of hunting activity.

1. Risk factors

Risk factors are defined the alterations suffered by the environment where a pair of Golden Eagle has its own home range . We can divide risk factors into two aspects:

1. Risk factors falling on the nesting site
2. Risk factors falling within the hunting territory

In the first case they can cause the abandonment of the brooding and therefore the failure of the reproduction. In the second one, risk factors can alter and jeopardize the rapacious activities unbalancing its vital needs (indirectly they can also endanger reproduction).

The main risk factors are (Tormen & Cibien, 1991 modified):

Agro-silvo-pastoral activities Electric cable cables Industrial wind power plants Inhabited centers

Isolated buildings at high altitude (for example shelters) Lifts or other ski slopes

Hiking or mountaineering trails Roads of various kinds

Other

An important element of the risk factors is their distance from the Eagle spawning sites.

However, it should be noted that most of the alterations listed are more deleterious if they occur after a couple of eagles have entered a given territory. Otherwise if the opposite happens, the risk factors in certain circumstances diminish.

During nesting if the Eagle is disturbed within the safety limits, it tries to further camouflage its return to the nest. On one occasion right under a nest of Golden Eagle, a woodcut was under way during the brooding. Despite the obvious disorder, the bird of prey did not abandon the hatching (probably the distrubo even if evident was not beyond the safety limit), but put in place a defense strategy camouflaging at most the returns to the nest (vertically or with another camouflage trajectory ) (Borlenghi 1992, personal communication).

NB The disturbance and risk factors for the Golden Eagle in the provinces of Belluno and Treviso are well summarized in Tormen & Cibien (1991).

1. Negative agents: brief analysis

1. Alterations of the environment

As we have repeatedly observed, the environmental damage deriving from human activity is very serious. The direct and indirect causes that are at the origin of the mentioned environmental decline, and therefore of the serious consequences brought to the life of the Golden Eagle and of course the rest of the wildlife, can be summarized as follows:

1. Road construction. The proliferation of roads of various kinds, especially those of mountains, has largely contributed to subvert the ecological balance of vast areas, because the road system multiplies the human presence originated by the most various reasons, such as tourism, recreation, production activities , etc. The loss of the conditions of isolation and tranquility that Aquila requires, obviously produces serious changes to the habitat of the species.
2. Tourism and tourist settlements. Among the dangers that seriously undermine natural ecosystems (marine, coastal, hilly, mountainous, etc.) emerges the tourist explosion that, in various forms such as hikers, hikers, climbers, free-climbing, invades the most remote of the territory. The tourist demand calls for the construction of permanent settlements that involve the consolidation of sea, lake, mountain and hill areas. The ski activities then, as well as translating into the creation of accommodation facilities (hotels, restaurants, etc.), also give rise to the construction of impressive ski lifts; in Italy the cableways that are developed in mountain environment reach the total development of three thousand kilometers, so they manage to concentrate large tourist masses in mountain areas during the winter period that for the fauna is extremely delicate (the same is also true of other countries like Austria, Switzerland, etc.). Serious damage is also caused by the so-called "off-piste skiing" such as ski-mountaineering, skiing and cross- country skiing, as it spreads the practitioners, on vast, and remote, mountain

territories. The tourist wave that pours on the mountain has reached the point that in the Dolomites there are those who even propose the closed number of tourists, in order to limit the damage caused to the environment, including those concerning the nesting of the Golden Eagle and of other raptors; think that in many European and Italian districts, low-altitude nests must be monitored during the entire nesting period to safeguard the brooding and the consequent birth of the chickens.

Great trouble also bring the flights with paragliders, hang gliders and gliding with gliders (as well as helicopters when flying at low altitude). Especially during nesting raptors these practices are extremely harmful so much that under certain circumstances they are the pre-eminent cause of reproductive failure. On one occasion I was able to see directly the abandonment of the nest by a couple of Golden Eagle in hatching because of a helicopter that for over an hour has flown at close range the rocky walls where the bird of prey was located. The passage near the nesting sites of the Golden Eagle in addition to pushing it to leave the nest can even sporadically determine the attack of the aircraft (the hang glider in the event of an attack can suffer severe lacerations to the sails). In this sense there are cases in the area of the Dolomites (Tormen & Cibien, 1991). Personally I have witnessed on several occasions to weak "attacks" against gliders. This can happen because these aircraft can be considered by the Eagles as invading antagonist birds of the nesting territory.

1. Cinematographic photography and scientific research. Even the activity carried out by unscrupulous photographers and filmmakers is at times a source of considerable disturbance for the life of L'Aquila; in fact, it is not rare that, in order to obtain the photo or the desired recovery, some operators insist with reprehensible obstinacy in portraying the exemplary object of extemporaneous interest, up to causing the interruption of the nesting due to the excessive approach to the nest.

A similar consideration applies to some researchers who are improperly called "naturalists" who, in order to obtain data for their studies, often aimed only at scientific careers, resort to behaviors that offend the wilderness of nature; This judgment is even more valid for the effects deriving from the research carried out on some wild animals (eg mammals), often subject to real aggressions consisting of the exasperated application of radiocollaries and markings, always in the name of scientific research.

1. Industrial settlements . Industrial development is at the base of the economy of contemporary society and is therefore favored by government programs, as well as by the profit spring. Industrial activities, especially chemical and energy, exercise a double harmful action against the fauna: a) pollution of the territory (for example release of heavy metals such as mercury); b) destruction of pre-existing ecosystems.
2. The destruction and incorrect management of the woods. The progressive destruction of the woods has rarefied the presence of the typical fauna of the specific environment, both because it has deprived them of the nesting sites, as regards the birds, and because it has disturbed them in their hunting actions. The errant reforestations that colonize territories such as pastures or grasslands of altitude, reduce, as we have already observed, the hunting territory of the Golden Eagle. In Scotland I have noted the existence of extensive industrial reforestation that greatly alter the territory of the Eagles allocated in those places. Finally, it should be noted that the mechanization of  the  wood  cuts  entails  a  serious  destruction  of  the

environments, both due to the opening of roads, and due to the excessive rolling of the wood and the complex annexed works. If this practice is performed near the nests of a couple of Golden Eagle, it may involve the abandonment of the nesting or in any case changes in its behavior (re-entry alternatives to the nest, reduction of feeding the nestlings, reduction of alternation in the hatching , etc.).

1. Pastoralism. The strong reduction of pastoralism in mountain areas has caused serious damage to certain birds of prey, deprived of food sources constituted by both the occasional predation of lambs, and - above all - by the not infrequent finding of placenta and carrion of sheep died from illness, or due to accidents. Suffice it to say that in Sardinia the contraction of pastoralism has caused serious damage to the survival of the griffin, so much so that it must be compensated with special carnai. The griffon vulture in Spain finds its most abundant food right in domestic cattle (sheep), left in large numbers in the wild. Even the Golden Eagle has suffered from the reduction of livestock breeding farms as, as repeatedly stressed, in its diet carcasses play a not indifferent role especially during the winter season. Usually the carrion found in the mountains belonged and they almost always belong to domestic species, at least in certain places (eg on the Apennines), since the big wild fauna was, and is, strongly contracted. The reduction of these carcasses is not only due to the decrease in livestock, but also to the progress of veterinary medicine that has significantly reduced the mortality of livestock. In addition, we remember the numerous sanitary provisions that almost always oblige the burial of dead animals in the mountains. However, this must not make us forget that excessive, capillary, localized and uncontrolled pasturing provides serious damage to the environment (damage to the turf, impediment to the rebirth of the forest, excessive disturbance, construction of the outbuildings, competition with wild herbivores, etc.).
2. Incidents related to human activities. Every year a significant number of animals lose their lives due to accidents caused by human actions, as happens for example when they are hit by mechanical means, or are struck by electrocution (electrocution) electrocutions or by the spinning of immense energy blades industrial wind.

The suspended power lines represent a serious threat to birds of prey, especially large ones such as the Golden Eagle. In the United States it has been verified that most of the electrocution, as regards the Golden Eagle and the Bald Eagle, affected the young and sub-adult specimens (Olendorff et al., 1981 in Fasce & Fasce, 1984).

Deaths or serious damage can occur due to several causes: collisions with the wires (collisions), contact with the two poles, or a pole and the earth (Ledger, 1991). In contrast to these negative aspects, there is the "advantage" of using poles and wires as perches for hunting or even for reproduction in dry areas without trees (Ledger, 1991).

A world study on collisions of birds of prey with service lines (electrical, telephone, etc.), found that 70% of the presumed collisions affected the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) , the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), the sea eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) , red-tailed buzzard (Buteo jamaicensis) and osprey (Pandion haliaetus) (Ledger, 1991). In Europe alone, there are millions of birds every year that die by electrocution and collision with power lines. For example, in some districts, electrocution is one of the main non- natural causes of owl deaths (Penteriani, 1996).

In the United States the continuing deaths of the Golden Eagle urged studies to find a solution, at least to the dead by electrocution. Good successes were achieved with greater spacing between the threads, or by positioning the glasses differently; moreover, wooden structures were prepared to replace the metal ones and specific perches were set (Olendorff et al., 1981 in Fasce & Fasce, 1984).

Even the Golden Eagle (as well as the osprey, the red-tailed buzzard, the raptor eagle, etc.) try to nest, even if not excessively, over the towers of the large pylons (Ledger, 1991). To promote this in the USA, platforms specially designed by Morlan Nelson (Ledger, 1991) have been activated in certain locations.

Another major example of damage to the ornithic fauna is the large industrial wind energy complexes that annually kill hundreds of thousands of birds, including large birds such as eagles and vultures. This is particularly evident in the structures placed in mountain environments (remember that the rotors reach a height of up to a hundred meters).

1. Chemical poisoning

The use of some toxic substances, used both in agriculture and in industry, has caused serious damage even to birds of prey, above all with reference to their productivity. The chemical poisoning, now widespread, has altered almost all the natural cycles of the countryside, depriving the biocenosis of fundamental elements that underlie the equilibrium of the individual ecosystems. Many chemicals in the food chain are concentrated at each step. Obviously the predators and the superpredators, placed at the top of the pyramid, make the most of the expenses. In addition to obvious direct damage from acute poisoning, a subtle accumulation of toxic substances occurs in the body causing serious physiological imbalances, not least that which affects calcium metabolism (Chiavetta, 1981), which results in a fragility of the egg shell that it is so thin to break with the simple weight of the hatching bird (Chiavetta, 1981). A clear example is offered to us by the damages of this kind suffered by the pilgrim in almost all the northern districts of presence, but also by other species (eg the sparrowhawk). We also note an increase in the infertility of couples (Chiavetta, 1981), infertility that is often due to the fallout of radiation deriving from nuclear apparatus. Even the Golden Eagle has suffered and is damaged by the use of toxic substances in agriculture. For example, in California a specific research seems to have shown the poisoning of specimens of Golden Eagle and also of other species for the use of Chlorophacinone, an antiguagulant rodonticide (Peeters, 1994). In Scotland in the early sixties pesticide poisoning deeply affected the productivity of the Golden Eagle (Lockie & Ratcliffe, 1964 in Fasce & Fasce, 1984). In particular, on 39 couples, only 29% had reproductive successes and almost 40% suffered breakage of eggs (Lockie & Ratcliffe, 1964 in Fasce & Fasce, 1984).

The almost total prohibition of particularly harmful pesticides, such as DDT, has favored in some countries the partial rebalancing of some elements and, as regards the birds of prey, a slight recovery of certain species (remember the peregrine falcon in the northern band of presence), sometimes encouraged by specific reintroduction operations. To be honest, however, we must remember that environmental pollution is so uncontrollable and so widespread that it will be difficult to find a solution that reduces its damage.

The great economic interests, at the base of all the activities of contemporary man, hide the truths and make sure that what is right does not go ahead but only that which is more profitable! The human economy does not at all coincide with that of nature.

1. Hunting and other direct persecutions

Hunting. The Golden Eagle, like the other birds of prey and large predatory mammals, has been ruthlessly persecuted, shot down with every means and in every way. With the false belief, often in bad faith, of the harmfulness of predators, it has been run until a few years ago to a real decimation campaign that has led in a short time to the rarefaction of many species and the disappearance of other (think of the wolf in many European and North American districts). There was a period when the Golden Eagle, not to mention the other birds of prey, was persecuted in a thousand ways, by means of poisoned bites (direct and indirect poisonings), traps (even traps in the nests), destruction of the nests , direct killings with rifles, etc. so much so that, within a few years, the rapacious population was greatly reduced.

The exile of the long-tailed Eagle (Aquila audax), practiced until recently in Australia where, from 1950 to 1959, more than 120,000 specimens were killed (Brooker, 1991)! In Alaska in the period 1917-52 128,273 white-headed eagles were killed (Newton, 1991). In Norway during the period 1846-1900, 223,487 birds of prey were killed, including 61,157 royal eagles and sea eagles (Newton, 1991). The list could be long.

Thanks to the pressures made by environmental associations, ornithologists and other scientists, today in many countries most raptors are among protected species (in Italy they are all protected). Fortunately, after the hunting bandit, the Golden Eagle, as we have seen several times, is re- colonizing many of its territories, with the exception of those that have undergone particular changes (environmental, trophic, etc.) so as not to allow them to survive, even if direct persecution is greatly reduced. But it should be noted that, although this protection has been in force for many years, poaching operations still occur with the consequent loss of many specimens; to a damage of such gravity is added that caused by the disturbance that the hunting activity causes for itself in the territory. Unfortunately, it must be added that poaching activities, especially those carried out in Italy, are facilitated by the almost total absence of effective and concrete surveillance on the territory, as well as by the unconsciousness of many so-called "hunters". It is estimated that in Italy the hunting activity, combined with the "fight against the harmful", has caused a reduction of 40% of the Falconiforms nesting (Chiavetta, 1981). Fortunately, today the situation is gradually improving, although the effect produced by environmental destruction constitutes, on its behalf, a serious obstacle to recovery.

Example of other persecutions. The sheep farmers, in most cases, have always seen negatively the presence of the Golden Eagle. In some areas of the planet (for example in Texas and New Mexico) until the sixties, they used to knock down all the Eagles in the area, many of them coming from northernmost territories, by means of special hunts organized by airplanes ( 1000-2000 Eagles per year were also killed) (Newton, 1991). Breeders entrusted the operation to expert pilots. Most of the jokes, which often lasted several days, were performed just before the lambs were born. As the Eagles were eliminated, others began to arrive from the neighboring areas, so

hunting was repeated ("distant" areas were also 240 km away from an airport) (Newton, 1991).

1. Falconry, trade, collectibles

One of the main reasons for the disappearance of the sea eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) from the Scottish territories was the looting of the eggs from the nests. The example of Scotland reminds us that this absurd practice, combined with the capture of young people, has obviously touched all raptors almost everywhere in the world, including the Golden Eagle. Currently, although such activities are officially forbidden in most of the States, they still have many lovers (collectors, traders, falconers, etc.). The capture of adults to be embalmed to then constitute inglorious trophies, as well as being the expression of a necrophilia of bad taste, also causes the disappearance of specimens belonging, such as the Eagles, to species that express particular charm. Falconry for its part feeds a significant illegitimate market urged by the demand that comes from the Arab countries, concerning - for the most part - species requests of the type of the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) . The origin of falconry is lost in the mists of time, so much so that some authors trace it back to the eastern regions of 2,000 BC. C. (Burnham, 1991). The lifestyle of the nomadic Asian populations was well congenial with falconry, which was practiced with eagles and falcons with the primary intent to obtain meat for food (Burnham, 1991) (the Eagles were also used for wolf hunting ). With the passing of time falconry spread widely also in China, India, Persia and Arabia.

In the Mediterranean area it developed starting from 400 d. C., while in the sixth century it entered the practice of Germanic tribes (Burnham, 1991).

Little by little the falconry assumed more and more the connotation of a sport activity and the period between 500 and 1600 d. C. saw its climax in Christian Europe and Islam (Burnham, 1991).

In the Middle Ages very often there was a correspondence between the social rank and the possessed raptor. The falcons became more and more part of daily life and many historical figures became passionate falconers (Genghis Khan, Federico II, etc.). With the advent of hunting rifles, deforestation, the establishment of hunting reserves and changes to the land system were the pre-eminent causes of falconry decline in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries (Burnham, 1991). Framed as harmful animals and potential rivals for hunting began a radical work of destruction. Meanwhile, falconry continued to exist only within a small group of people (Burnham, 1991). However, in the Arab countries falconry has remained almost unchanged in its shape and style over time, even if recently the use of off- road vehicles in the desert to replace the camels during the "beats" with the falcon has altered and completely upset the rite of the falconry of the old Bedouins (Burnham, 1991).

Nowadays falconry, certainly reduced, is also used to remove the birds that hinder the activity of the airplanes from the airports.

In the practice of falconry, the most coveted raptors have always been the falcons (peregrine falcon, sacred hawk, gyrfalcon, etc.), while to a lesser extent were the eagles and other larger species. In fact, in the pure sense, falconry refers only to falcons of the falcon genus, while people who hunt with eagles are called austringers (Burnham, 1991). Sometimes hybrids are also

used to mix the qualities of two species (for example falco pellegrino- girfalco).

Nowadays most falcons used in falconry come exclusively (or should come from) authorized breeding that can successfully reproduce all the desired species (especially falcons). Often from these farms (most of which were born with the primary objective of conservation) the hawks used to re- introduce them to nature in places where they had almost completely disappeared (for example the peregrine falcon in North America); Experienced falconers have also contributed many times to these reintroduction operations. Of course, in some places official birds of prey caught in the wild are still officially used (for example in Mongolia) or where illegal and irresponsible withdrawals are prohibited. The fact that especially in the past years predation to the nesting of the eggs or of the chickens by the falconers has been one of the causes of the decimation of entire populations of birds of prey in certain localities can not be concealed.

However, falconry can not be seen only from human optics, but above all from the right way towards nature. Then it will appear as yet another expression of human dominion towards the "defenseless" and wild natural world. It is beyond doubt that no human activity can be carried out if we compare it with natural history. This is a distorted relationship between man and animal that leads the animal to irreversible distortion. Once imprinted these birds can hardly be "returned" to the world of wild nature. A wild Eagle always portrays itself before a man, while an eagle from "falconry" always looks for the man !! (Mezzatesta, 1984).

1. The protection of the Golden Eagle

To reserve a better future for the life of the Golden Eagle, as well as of course the other birds of prey, it is necessary to work in different directions, considering however that the results can hardly appear immediately. If the "Queen of Heaven" in several districts is re-colonizing old territories of presence, this should not cause us to lower our guard because the dangers to nature are subtle and obvious are always ambush and can cause, in a short time, serious environmental imbalances that inevitably would affect the life of the Golden Eagle. In short, the essential points to keep in mind to achieve effective protection should be as follows:

1. eliminate direct killings and the collection of eggs and nestlings for commercial purposes and for falconry (in many countries, including Italy, such protection has already been a reality for some years). The penalties should be exceptionally severe, up to the imposition of very high fines and arrest;
2. to give vigor to the safeguard rules, both by intensifying controls and by implementing strict territorial surveillance;
3. disseminate widely the real notions of nature conservation and, in the specific case, the functions that the Golden Eagle performs in the overall economy of nature;
4. organize, where possible, permanent surveillance services throughout the reproductive period, or at least for the majority of them, especially for risky nesting sites (this practice is spreading also in Italy, thanks also to the involvement of the associations protectionist and the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry);

5. plan the occasional establishment of carnai in suitable points to replace the anthropogenic cause of prey and carrion. Limit the burial of carcasses of the livestock perito for non-dangerous causes;

drastically reduce the use of toxic chemicals in agriculture;

closure of hunting activities in the most frequented locations of the Golden Eagle; where this is not possible, reduce hunting periods and days. Bind the hunter to the territory so that he feels responsible for the area and operates with conscience and reasoning.

prohibit sport climbing, mountaineering and work of various kinds, near the nesting points;

deepen the field observations to acquire a complete knowledge of the status of the various populations of the Golden Eagle, their fertility rate and reproductive success; these studies will be useful to plan any interventions on the territory;

to favor the restoration of the natural food chain with the opportune re- introduction of species that have disappeared due to anthropic causes and with the real conservation of the territory;

in order to avoid the electrocution of the eagles that are placed on the power lines, the installation of suitable perches on the pylons appears appropriate; such an intervention will obviously be useful also for the other big birds of prey (eg vultures);

avoid installing wind turbines in mountain areas and not where they can heavily affect bird mortality. Before installing a new system, it is important to evaluate the environmental impact that could result. Favoring the plants in areas deemed suitable with small rotors and not disposed on the territory in strong concentration;

keep the nesting sites identified secret;

1. drastically reduce land tampering, such as urbanization, road opening, overbuilding, the massive use of pesticides and other chemical poisons, the onslaught of tourism and related structures, etc .;
2. establish protected areas in as many as possible; finalize protected areas to the true safeguard of ecosystems essential for nature conservation. In protected areas, do not limit yourself to hunting only, but avoid all "eco- compatible" speculations that are not compatible at all (tourism, recreational areas, etc.).

1. Protected areas

If, as we have just seen, the list of negative factors for the Golden Eagle appears strongly articulated, univocal could instead be the answer: it is necessary to establish large protected areas, such as sun and effective guarantees of survival of the bird of prey on condition that true protection of nature (obviously in some cases we need to protect even small local realities). The establishment of protected areas does not obviously license the irrational assault of free territories. A civilized nation should carefully protect the whole territory by varying only the levels of protection.

However, the establishment of a protected area would not be sufficient for itself to achieve the goal, if the usual rules governing its management were not complemented by a more rigid legislation which, for example, could take into account the following provisions, which can also be extended to unprotected territories:

1. Absolute closure to the public of the localities directly interested in nesting, at least in the period corresponding to the brooding and to the breeding of the chickens (this is necessary if the nesting site can be subject to direct disturbance).

Rigid surveillance during breeding at least for high-risk nests.

Possible occasional and occasional institution of carnai in the hypothesis that for anthropic reason there was a substantial decrease of the wild fauna predictable from the Eagle. This is especially true during the winter period. In any case, however, the intervention must always be extremely limited.

Inhibition of the interment of carrions of dead grazing animals for the most diverse causes (with the exception of poisonings, epidemics or animals treated with drugs).

Permanent closure of the hiking trails that develop in the delicate hunting areas of the raptor.

Permanent closure of mountain roads affecting the territory of L'Aquila, both at valley level and at altitude.

Total closure or strong reduction with strict control of hunting activities in areas of a certain environmental value (applies to unprotected areas) to encourage the recovery of wildlife, a potential prey of the bird of prey.

Complete elimination of projects of various purposes that involve serious environmental alterations (sports facilities, openings of mountain roads, etc.).

Carefully manage and protect the home range of the Golden Eagle to avoid errors that could negatively affect the life of the Eagle.

In addition to these specific guidelines to be followed for a correct and concrete protection of the Golden Eagle, it is considered appropriate to formulate some basic principles to ensure a protected area, large or small, a rational protection useful for all wildlife.

1. The Reserve must develop on an "acceptable" surface, in the sense that its breadth must be harmonized with the external anthropized environment.
2. The Reserve must remain limited to an external protection zone that acts as a buffer between the external degrading human activities and the vital territory of the protected area. This band must cover a surface that is a third greater than the protected area, even better if the outer band covers an extension that exceeds by at least two thirds that of the Reserve.
3. Public access, at least for the most sensitive areas, must be conditioned to specific authorization and limited to a few paths.
4. As soon as the establishment of a reserve has been carried out, it is necessary to prohibit the existing polluting activities, and to close the roads that develop within it, with the exception of those of public liaison interest; the number of hiking trails must be reduced to the essentials.
5. For the first five to ten years after its establishment, the Reserve should be subject to in-depth ecological studies, in order to formulate a judgment on the existing situation (territorial status and biological status) and on the degree of recovery possible. In this first phase, interventions of particular importance should be avoided (re-introduction of animal or plant species, tourism enhancements, etc.). This period could be called "resting phase".
6. The true intent that lies at the origin of the protection of the area covered by the Reserve must be the integral safeguard of nature, leaving aside any human interest.
7. The Reserve must be divided into territories (zoning), with varying degrees of protection. The division of the zones should be articulated as follows

(indicative formulation subject to adjustments in relation to the type of territory examined):

• Integral protection zone (inhibition of any human intervention, including simple access or management interventions): 20% of the total area.
• Area of general integral reserve (only human interventions that have protectionist purposes, without prejudice to the prohibition of access): 10% of the total area.
• General reserve area (human access only with permission, for educational purposes and other controlled activities): 30% of the total area.
• Zone of general reserve circumscribed to the most external areas or in any case less sensitive (free access, controlled receptive activity, and others): 40% of the total area.

To this zonation is added, as already pointed out in point n ° 2, a wide range of external protection; this band, possibly forbidden to hunt, must be protected in particular through strict environmental protection standards, both for human work activities and for the use of natural resources (forests, water, etc.).

1. Within the various sections of the Reserve, areas of particular interest, deserving of protection, should be identified, if necessary, such as, for example, sensitive areas of nesting, sites with rare plant wrecks, scree. These areas must absolutely be precluded from human presence.
2. The regulation, properly adapted to the peculiarity of the protected territory, must be strictly implemented and respected.
3. The establishment of a protected area would not in itself be sufficient to achieve the effective protection of the territory, or that of particular animal species, if the usual regulations were not supplemented by regulations appropriate to the various cases as seen in precedence for the protection of the Golden Eagle.
4. External scientific research must be subjected to the norms dictated for every other type of human intervention.
5. In general, management interventions in the Reserve must be very limited. When necessary, they must aim exclusively at restoring the natural conditions compromised by human activity; this objective is sometimes achieved through the reintroduction of species of fauna and plants present in earlier times and destroyed by man, other times through the elimination of human works such as roads, dams, constructions of other artefacts, etc. Obviously this type of intervention can be implemented only in those areas that present fairly intact conditions, that have a minimum of resilience and retain the potential needed to accommodate the previous forms of life.
6. If the management considers it useful to proceed with the reintroduction of particular animal or plant species within the protected area, as seen in point 12, it should precede any interventions by long and meticulous studies, such as: collection of historical testimonies on the past presence of the species, identification of the causes that led to the disappearance of the species, findings on the existing ecological conditions of the Reserve in order to verify its compatibility with the species to be reintroduced. The interventions deemed scientifically feasible must minimize the tampering of the territory (if for example it will be necessary to build enclosures of acclimatization, you must place them in places with low environmental impact, also wishing to build them with inconspicuous structures). Absolutely

avoid reintroducing extinct animals in the area for many centuries, especially if the trophic / environmental conditions of such a return no longer exist.

1. The personnel responsible for the surveillance of the protected area must work actively and concretely to ensure a careful and effective control of the territory (remember that in some northern European countries, such as Finland, the civic sense and entrenched mentalism of respect of the rules, so that often in the protected areas the sovereignty is minimal as the self- discipline is so high that it does not need specific and analytical checks.They obviously apply the exceptions for particular cases).

 

At this point, to conclude, let us ask ourselves whether there is the possibility of pragmatically composing the disagreement between man and nature; yes, perhaps this is possible if we reconsider the problem in its entirety, which means to identify a new model of development, and to apply it in its entirety. A new model of development means eliminating or at least reducing all forms of environmental pollution and destruction and planning technological and demographic development, as well as evaluating all the forms of environmental impact that mankind determines in order to develop a society that is at maximum sustainability. But it also means drastically influencing the thought and therefore the behavior of the individual man in relation to nature; the latter is an essential point of the problem.

"He is the man who has to adapt to the needs of nature and not vice versa. If possible, let the wild animals live in their freedom and in their pride, that freedom and the pride that man, a prisoner and a slave to his own conventions, may perhaps unconciously envy. "

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